p53R172H and p53R245W Hotspot Mutations Drive Distinct Transcriptomes in Mouse Mammary Tumors Through a Convergent Transcriptional Mediator.

Aggressive breast cancers harbor TP53 missense mutations. Tumor cells with TP53 missense mutations exhibit enhanced growth and survival through transcriptional rewiring. To delineate how TP53 mutations in breast cancer contribute to tumorigenesis and progression in vivo, we created a somatic mouse model driven by mammary epithelial cell-specific expression of Trp53 mutations. Mice developed primary mammary tumors reflecting the human molecular subtypes of Luminal A, Luminal B, HER2-enriched, and Triple Negative Breast Cancer with metastases. Transcriptomic analyses comparing MaPR172H/- or MaPR245W/- mammary tumors to MaP-/- tumors revealed (1) differences in cancer associated pathways activated in both p53 mutants and (2) Nr5a2 as a novel transcriptional mediator of distinct pathways in p53 mutants. Meta-analyses of human breast tumors corroborated these results. In vitro assays demonstrate mutant p53 upregulates specific target genes that are enriched for Nr5a2 response elements in their promoters. Co-immunoprecipitation studies revealed p53R172H and p53R245W interact with Nr5a2. These findings implicate NR5A2 as a novel mediator of mutant p53 transcriptional activity in breast cancer.

Genome-wide CRISPR-Cas9 screen analyzed by SLIDER identifies network of repressor complexes that regulate TRIM24.

TRIM24 is an oncogenic chromatin reader that is frequently overexpressed in human tumors and associated with poor prognosis. However, TRIM24 is rarely mutated, duplicated, or rearranged in cancer. This raises questions about how TRIM24 is regulated and what changes in its regulation are responsible for its overexpression. Here, we perform a genome-wide CRISPR-Cas9 screen by fluorescence-activated cell sorting (FACS) that nominated 220 negative regulators and elucidated a regulatory network that includes the KAP1 corepressor, CNOT deadenylase, and GID/CTLH E3 ligase. Knocking out required components of these three complexes caused TRIM24 overexpression, confirming their negative regulation of TRIM24. Our findings identify regulators of TRIM24 that nominate previously unexplored contexts for this oncoprotein in biology and disease. These findings were enabled by SLIDER, a new scoring system designed and vetted in our study as a broadly applicable tool for analysis of CRISPR screens performed by FACS.

Unique Transcriptional Profiles Underlie Osteosarcomagenesis Driven by Different p53 Mutants.

Missense mutations in the DNA binding domain of p53 are characterized as structural or contact mutations based on their effect on the conformation of the protein. These mutations show gain-of-function (GOF) activities, such as promoting increased metastatic incidence compared with p53 loss, often mediated by the interaction of mutant p53 with a set of transcription factors. These interactions are largely context specific. To understand the mechanisms by which p53 DNA binding domain mutations drive osteosarcoma progression, we created mouse models, in which either the p53 structural mutant p53R172H or the contact mutant p53R245W are expressed specifically in osteoblasts, yielding osteosarcoma tumor development. Survival significantly decreased and metastatic incidence increased in mice expressing p53 mutants compared with p53-null mice, suggesting GOF. RNA sequencing of primary osteosarcomas revealed vastly different gene expression profiles between tumors expressing the missense mutants and p53-null tumors. Further, p53R172H and p53R245W each regulated unique transcriptomes and pathways through interactions with a distinct repertoire of transcription factors. Validation assays showed that p53R245W, but not p53R172H, interacts with KLF15 to drive migration and invasion in osteosarcoma cell lines and promotes metastasis in allogeneic transplantation models. In addition, analyses of p53R248W chromatin immunoprecipitation peaks showed enrichment of KLF15 motifs in human osteoblasts. Taken together, these data identify unique mechanisms of action of the structural and contact mutants of p53. SIGNIFICANCE: The p53 DNA binding domain contact mutant p53R245W, but not the structural mutant p53R172H, interacts with KLF15 to drive metastasis in somatic osteosarcoma, providing a potential vulnerability in tumors expressing p53R245W mutation.

LncPRESS1 Is a p53-Regulated LncRNA that Safeguards Pluripotency by Disrupting SIRT6-Mediated De-acetylation of Histone H3K56.

Recent evidence suggests that lncRNAs play an integral regulatory role in numerous functions, including determination of cellular identity. We determined global expression (RNA-seq) and genome-wide profiles (ChIP-seq) of histone post-translational modifications and p53 binding in human embryonic stem cells (hESCs) undergoing differentiation to define a high-confidence set of 40 lncRNAs, which are p53 transcriptional targets. We focused on lncRNAs highly expressed in pluripotent hESCs and repressed by p53 during differentiation to identify lncPRESS1 as a p53-regulated transcript that maintains hESC pluripotency in concert with core pluripotency factors. RNA-seq of hESCs depleted of lncPRESS1 revealed that lncPRESS1 controls a gene network that promotes pluripotency. Further, we found that lncPRESS1 physically interacts with SIRT6 and prevents SIRT6 chromatin localization, which maintains high levels of histone H3K56 and H3K9 acetylation at promoters of pluripotency genes. In summary, we describe a p53-regulated, pluripotency-specific lncRNA that safeguards the hESC state by disrupting SIRT6 activity.

TRIM-ing Ligand Dependence in Castration-Resistant Prostate Cancer.

Prostate cancer is lethal when tumors evolve to activate androgen receptor signaling, which circumvents ligand-deprivation therapy. In this issue of Cancer Cell, Groner et al. show that histone reader and transcription co-regulator TRIM24 occupies a central role in this evolution, nominating inhibitors of TRIM24's bromodomain as a new therapeutic avenue.

Intratumoral morphologic and molecular heterogeneity of rhabdoid renal cell carcinoma: challenges for personalized therapy.

Rhabdoid histology in clear-cell renal cell carcinoma is associated with a poor prognosis. The prognosis of patients with clear-cell renal cell carcinoma may also be influenced by molecular alterations. The aim of this study was to evaluate the association between histologic features and salient molecular changes in rhabdoid clear-cell renal cell carcinoma. We macrodissected the rhabdoid and clear-cell epithelioid components from 12 cases of rhabdoid clear-cell renal cell carcinoma. We assessed cancer-related mutations from eight cases using a clinical next-generation exome-sequencing platform. The transcriptome of rhabdoid clear-cell renal cell carcinoma (n=8) and non-rhabdoid clear-cell renal cell carcinoma (n=37) was assessed by RNA-seq and gene expression microarray. VHL (63%) showed identical mutations in all regions from the same tumor. BAP1 (38%) and PBRM1 (13%) mutations were identified in the rhabdoid but not in the epithelioid component and were mutually exclusive in 3/3 cases and 1 case, respectively. SETD2 (63%) mutations were discordant between different histologic regions in 2/5 cases, with mutations called only in the epithelioid and rhabdoid components, respectively. The transcriptome of rhabdoid clear-cell renal cell carcinoma was distinct from advanced-stage and high-grade clear-cell renal cell carcinoma. The diverse histologic components of rhabdoid clear-cell renal cell carcinoma, however, showed a similar transcriptomic program, including a similar prognostic gene expression signature. Rhabdoid clear-cell renal cell carcinoma is transcriptomically distinct and shows a high rate of SETD2 and BAP1 mutations and a low rate of PBRM1 mutations. Driver mutations in clear-cell renal cell carcinoma are often discordant across different morphologic regions, whereas the gene expression program is relatively stable. Molecular profiling of clear-cell renal cell carcinoma may improve by assessing for gene expression and sampling tumor foci from different histologic regions.

Biphasic components of sarcomatoid clear cell renal cell carcinomas are molecularly similar to each other, but distinct from, non-sarcomatoid renal carcinomas.

Sarcomatoid transformation, wherein an epithelioid carcinomatous tumour component coexists with a sarcomatoid histology, is a predictor of poor prognosis in clear cell renal cell carcinoma. Our understanding of sarcomatoid change has been hindered by the lack of molecular examination. Thus, we sought to characterize molecularly the biphasic epithelioid and sarcomatoid components of sarcomatoid clear cell renal cell carcinoma and compare them to non-sarcomatoid clear cell renal cell carcinoma. We examined the transcriptome of the epithelioid and sarcomatoid components of advanced stage sarcomatoid clear cell renal cell carcinoma (n=43) and non-sarcomatoid clear cell renal cell carcinoma (n=37) from independent discovery and validation cohorts using the cDNA microarray and RNA-seq platforms. We analyzed DNA copy number profiles, generated using SNP arrays, from patients with sarcomatoid clear cell renal cell carcinoma (n=10) and advanced non-sarcomatoid clear cell renal cell carcinoma (n=155). The epithelioid and sarcomatoid components of sarcomatoid clear cell renal cell carcinoma had similar gene expression and DNA copy number signatures that were, however, distinct from those of high-grade, high-stage non-sarcomatoid clear cell renal cell carcinoma. Prognostic clear cell renal cell carcinoma gene expression profiles were shared by the biphasic components of sarcomatoid clear cell renal cell carcinoma and the sarcomatoid component showed a partial epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition signature. Our genome-scale microarray-based transcript data were validated in an independent set of sarcomatoid and non-sarcomatoid clear cell renal cell carcinomas using RNA-seq. Sarcomatoid clear cell renal cell carcinoma is molecularly distinct from non-sarcomatoid clear cell renal cell carcinoma, with its genetic programming largely shared by its biphasic morphological components. These data explain why a low percentage of sarcomatoid histology augurs a poor prognosis; suggest the need to modify the pathological grading system and introduce the potential for candidate biomarkers to detect sarcomatoid change preoperatively without specifically sampling the histological sarcomatoid component.

GAS6 receptor status is associated with dormancy and bone metastatic tumor formation.

Disseminated tumor cells (DTCs) are believed to lie dormant in the marrow before they can be activated to form metastases. How DTCs become dormant in the marrow and how dormant DTCs escape dormancy remains unclear. Recent work has shown that prostate cancer (PCa) cell lines express the growth-arrest specific 6 (GAS6) receptors Axl, Tyro3, and Mer, and become growth arrested in response to GAS6. We therefore hypothesized that GAS6 signaling regulates the proliferative activity of DTCs in the marrow. To explore this possibility, in vivo studies were performed where it was observed that when Tyro3 expression levels exceed Axl expression, the PCa cells exhibit rapid growth. When when Axl levels predominate, PCa cells remain largely quiescent. These findings suggest that a balance between the expression of Axl and Tyro3 is associated with a molecular switch between a dormant and a proliferative phenotype in PCa metastases.

Cancer genome sequencing: understanding malignancy as a disease of the genome, its conformation, and its evolution.

Advances in cancer genomics have been propelled by the steady evolution of molecular profiling technologies. Over the past decade, high-throughput sequencing technologies have matured to the point necessary to support disease-specific shotgun sequencing. This has compelled whole-genome sequencing studies across a broad panel of malignancies. The emergence of high-throughput sequencing technologies has inspired new chemical and computational techniques enabling interrogation of cancer-specific genomic and transcriptomic variants, previously unannotated genes, and chromatin structure. Finally, recent progress in single-cell sequencing holds great promise for studies interrogating the consequences of tumor evolution in cancers presenting with genomic heterogeneity.

384 hanging drop arrays give excellent Z-factors and allow versatile formation of co-culture spheroids.

We previously reported the development of a simple, user-friendly, and versatile 384 hanging drop array plate for 3D spheroid culture and the importance of utilizing 3D cellular models in anti-cancer drug sensitivity testing. The 384 hanging drop array plate allows for high-throughput capabilities and offers significant improvements over existing 3D spheroid culture methods. To allow for practical 3D cell-based high-throughput screening and enable broader use of the plate, we characterize the robustness of the 384 hanging drop array plate in terms of assay performance and demonstrate the versatility of the plate. We find that the 384 hanging drop array plate performance is robust in fluorescence- and colorimetric-based assays through Z-factor calculations. Finally, we demonstrate different plate capabilities and applications, including: spheroid transfer and retrieval for Janus spheroid formation, sequential addition of cells for concentric layer patterning of different cell types, and culture of a wide variety of cell types.

Mechanisms of cancer cell metastasis to the bone: a multistep process.

For metastasis to occur, tumor cells must first detach from their tissue of origin. This requires altering both the tissue of origin and the cancer cell. Once detached, cancer cells in circulation must also acquire survival mechanisms. Although many may successfully disseminate, variation exists in the efficiency with which circulating tumor cells home to and invade the bone marrow as metastastic seeds. Disseminated tumor cells that do successfully invade the marrow are secured by cell-cell and cell-extracellular matrix adhesion. However, establishing a foothold in the marrow is not sufficient for disseminated tumor cells to create metastases. A significant latent phase must be overcome by either rescuing cellular proliferation or attenuating micrometastatic mass dormancy programs. Finally, growing metastases fuel osteolysis, osteoblastogenesis and T-cell differentiation, creating a variety of tumor phenotypes. Each step in the metastatic cascade is rich in biological targets and mechanistic pathways.

Human prostate cancer metastases target the hematopoietic stem cell niche to establish footholds in mouse bone marrow.

HSC homing, quiescence, and self-renewal depend on the bone marrow HSC niche. A large proportion of solid tumor metastases are bone metastases, known to usurp HSC homing pathways to establish footholds in the bone marrow. However, it is not clear whether tumors target the HSC niche during metastasis. Here we have shown in a mouse model of metastasis that human prostate cancer (PCa) cells directly compete with HSCs for occupancy of the mouse HSC niche. Importantly, increasing the niche size promoted metastasis, whereas decreasing the niche size compromised dissemination. Furthermore, disseminated PCa cells could be mobilized out of the niche and back into the circulation using HSC mobilization protocols. Finally, once in the niche, tumor cells reduced HSC numbers by driving their terminal differentiation. These data provide what we believe to be the first evidence that the HSC niche serves as a direct target for PCa during dissemination and plays a central role in bone metastases. Our work may lead to better understanding of the molecular events involved in bone metastases and new therapeutic avenues for an incurable disease.

Annexin-2 is a regulator of stromal cell-derived factor-1/CXCL12 function in the hematopoietic stem cell endosteal niche.

OBJECTIVE: Previously, we reported that annexin-2 (anxa2) plays an important role in hematopoietic stem cell (HSC) localization to the endosteal/osteoblastic marrow niche. This study explored the role that annexin-2 plays in presenting stromal cell-derived factor-1 (or CXCL12) to HSCs. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Competitive long-term bone marrow transplant assays were used to determine if HSC engraftment is altered in annexin-2-deficient animals. Colony-forming cell assays, CXCL12 enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, and real-time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction analyses were used to determine stem or progenitor cell mobilization by granulocyte colony-stimulating factor. Immunohistochemistry, immunoprecipitation, binding assays, and chemotactic assays were employed to determine if annexin-2 is associated with CXCL12. Degradation assays were also used to determine if annexin-2 and CXCL12 protect each other from proteolytic degradation. RESULTS: Anxa2(-/-) animals had fewer HSCs in their marrow, and the HSCs in anxa2(-/-) animals express less CXCR4 and CXCR7, suggesting a cell intrinsic defect. Transplantation studies of wild-type marrow into anxa2(-/-) animals demonstrated a cell-extrinsic defect in the anxa2(-/-) animals. CXCL12 binds directly to annexin-2, and this interaction facilitates presentation of CXCL12 to HSCs. Yet the binding of CXCL12 to annexin-2 did not protect CXCL12 from proteolytic cleavage after stem or progenitor cell mobilization by granulocyte colony-stimulating factor. CONCLUSIONS: These results suggest that annexin-2 serves as an anchor for CXCL12 to help in the localization of HSCs to the niche.

Prospective identification and skeletal localization of cells capable of multilineage differentiation in vivo.

A prospective in vivo assay was used to identify cells with potential for multiple lineage differentiation. With this assay, it was first determined that the 5-fluorouracil resistant cells capable of osseous tissue formation in vivo also migrated toward stromal derived factor-1 (SDF-1) in vitro. In parallel, an isolation method based on fluorescence-activated cell sorting was employed to identify a very small cell embryonic-like Lin-/Sca-1+CD45- cell that with as few as 500 cells was capable of forming bone-like structures in vivo. Differential marrow fractionation studies determined that the majority of the Lin-Sca-1+CD45- cells reside in the subendosteal regions of marrow. To determine whether these cells were capable of differentiating into multiple lineages, stromal cells harvested from Col2.3 Delta TK mice were implanted with a gelatin sponge into SCID mice to generate thymidine kinase sensitive ossicles. At 1.5 months, 2,000 green fluorescent protein (GFP)+ Lin-Sca-1+CD45- cells were injected into the ossicles. At harvest, colocalization of GFP-expressing cells with antibodies to the osteoblast-specific marker Runx-2 and the adipocyte marker PPAP gamma were observed. Based on the ability of the noncultured cells to differentiate into multiple mesenchymal lineages in vivo and the ability to generate osseous tissues at low density, we propose that this population fulfills many of the characteristics of mesenchymal stem cells.

GAS6/AXL axis regulates prostate cancer invasion, proliferation, and survival in the bone marrow niche.

Our recent studies have shown that annexin II, expressed on the cell surface of osteoblasts, plays an important role in the adhesion of hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) to the endosteal niche. Similarly, prostate cancer (PCa) cells express the annexin II receptor and seem to use the stem cell niche for homing to the bone marrow. The role of the niche is thought to be the induction and sustenance of HSC dormancy. If metastatic PCa cells occupy a similar or the same ecological niche as HSCs, then it is likely that the initial role of the HSC niche will be to induce dormancy in metastatic cells. In this study, we demonstrate that the binding of PCa to annexin II induces the expression of the growth arrest-specific 6 (GAS6) receptors AXL, Sky, and Mer, which, in the hematopoietic system, induce dormancy. In addition, GAS6 produced by osteoblasts prevents PCa proliferation and protects PCa from chemotherapy-induced apoptosis. Our results suggest that the activation of GAS6 receptors on PCa in the bone marrow environment may play a critical role as a molecular switch, establishing metastatic tumor cell dormancy.