ABSTRACT
Several studies have underlined the high prevalence of psychiatric symptoms and disorders in thyroid diseases. The aim of this study was to evaluate the prevalence of psychiatric disorders in 93 inpatients affected by different thyroid diseases during their lifetimes, by means of a standardized instrument, i.e., the Structured Clinical Interview for Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders-III-Revised, Upjohn Version (SCID-UP-R). The results showed higher rates of panic disorder, simple phobia, obsessive-compulsive disorder, major depressive disorder, bipolar disorder and cyclothymia in thyroid patients than in the general population. These findings would suggest that the co-occurrence of psychiatric and thyroid diseases may be the result of common biochemical abnormalities.
Subject(s)
Mental Disorders/epidemiology , Thyroid Diseases/epidemiology , Adult , Aged , Aged, 80 and over , Anxiety Disorders/complications , Anxiety Disorders/epidemiology , Female , Graves Disease/complications , Graves Disease/psychology , Humans , Male , Mental Disorders/complications , Middle Aged , Mood Disorders/complications , Mood Disorders/epidemiology , Prevalence , Psychiatric Status Rating Scales , Temperament/physiology , Thyroid Diseases/complicationsABSTRACT
Seventy-two percent of 86 major depressive patients with atypical features as defined by the DSM-IV and evaluated systematically were found to meet our criteria for bipolar II and related "soft" bipolar disorders; nearly 60% had antecedent cyclothymic or hyperthymic temperaments. The family history for bipolar disorder validated these clinical findings. Even if we limit the diagnosis of bipolar II to the official DSM-IV threshold of 4 days of hypomania, 32.6% of atypical depressives in our sample would meet this conservative threshold, a rate that is three times higher than the estimates of bipolarity among atypical depressives in the literature. By definition, mood reactivity was present in all patients, while interpersonal sensitivity occurred in 94%. Lifetime comorbidity rates were as follows: social phobia 30%, body dysmorphic disorder 42%, obsessive-compulsive disorder 20%, and panic disorder (agoraphobia) 64%. Both cluster A (anxious personality) and cluster B (e.g., borderline and histrionic) personality disorders were highly prevalent. These data suggest that the "atypicality" of depression is favored by affective temperamental dysregulation and anxiety comorbidity, clinically manifesting in a mood disorder subtype that is preponderantly in the realm of bipolar II. In the present sample, only 28% were strictly unipolar and characterized by avoidant and social phobic features, without histrionic traits.
Subject(s)
Bipolar Disorder/diagnosis , Depressive Disorder, Major/diagnosis , Adolescent , Adult , Anxiety Disorders/classification , Anxiety Disorders/diagnosis , Anxiety Disorders/psychology , Bipolar Disorder/classification , Bipolar Disorder/psychology , Comorbidity , Cyclothymic Disorder/classification , Cyclothymic Disorder/diagnosis , Cyclothymic Disorder/psychology , Depressive Disorder, Major/classification , Depressive Disorder, Major/psychology , Diagnosis, Differential , Female , Humans , Male , Middle Aged , Personality Disorders/classification , Personality Disorders/diagnosis , Personality Disorders/psychology , Psychiatric Status Rating Scales , TemperamentABSTRACT
A role of psychic stress in precipitating hyperthyroid Graves' disease has been suggested, but the evidence in support of this pathogenetic mechanism is conflicting. In this study we investigated the possible occurrence of Graves' disease in patients with panic disorder, a psychiatric condition characterized by recurrent endogenous stress. The study group included 87 consecutive patients suffering from panic disorder since 1 to 30 years: 17 males (mean age 31.3, range 26-43 years) and 70 females (mean age 37.6, range 15-73 years). Two hundred and sixty-two normal subjects with no present or past history of psychiatric disorder served as controls. Patients were submitted to a full evaluation of the thyroid that included physical examination, assays for free thyroid hormones, TSH, thyroglobulin (TgAb), thyroperoxidase (TPOAb) and TSH receptor (TRAb) antibodies, and thyroid echography. The prevalence of circulating TgAb and/or TPOAb in patients with panic disorder did not differ from that in the control group. Twelve patients with panic disorder (13.7%) had circulating TgAb and/or TPOAb, but none had TRAb. Three out of 12 patients with thyroid antibodies, indicating a genetic susceptibility to autoimmune thyroid disease, had a family history of clinical thyroid autoimmunity, and 4 of them had a hypoechogenic pattern of the thyroid at ultrasound suggesting autoimmune thyroiditis. None of the patients with panic disorder had a previous history of hyperthyroidism. On examination, clinical hyperthyroidism or endocrine ophthalmopathy were not found in any of them. A small goiter was appreciated by palpation in 16 patients (18.3%). Free thyroid hormones and TSH were within the normal range in all patients but one: a 55-year old lady with normal serum free thyroid hormones and undetectable TSH. During an 18-month follow-up she did not develop hyperthyroidism and her TSH spontaneously returned in the normal range. Considering the individual duration of panic disorder, evidence for previous or present Graves' hyperthyroidism was not found for a total of 478 patient-years of exposure to recurrent endogenous stress in the whole study group, and for a total of 39 patient-years in patients with a genetic susceptibility to autoimmune thyroid disease. In conclusion, we found that recurrent endogenous stress did not precipitate Graves' hyperthyroidism in a series of 87 patients with panic disorder, encompassing a total of 478 patient-years of exposure to stress. Failure to activate the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis by endogenous stress due to panic disorder as opposed to exogenous stress due to life-events might explain why panic disorder does not precipitate Graves' hyperthyroidism.
