Transcriptional and Chromatin Accessibility Profiling of Neural Stem Cells Differentiating into Astrocytes Reveal Dynamic Signatures Affected under Inflammatory Conditions.

Astrocytes arise from multipotent neural stem cells (NSCs) and represent the most abundant cell type of the central nervous system (CNS), playing key roles in the developing and adult brain. Since the differentiation of NSCs towards a gliogenic fate is a precisely timed and regulated process, its perturbation gives rise to dysfunctional astrocytic phenotypes. Inflammation, which often underlies neurological disorders, including neurodevelopmental disorders and brain tumors, disrupts the accurate developmental process of NSCs. However, the specific consequences of an inflammatory environment on the epigenetic and transcriptional programs underlying NSCs' differentiation into astrocytes is unexplored. Here, we address this gap by profiling in mice glial precursors from neural tissue derived from early embryonic stages along their astrocytic differentiation trajectory in the presence or absence of tumor necrosis factor (TNF), a master pro-inflammatory cytokine. By using a combination of RNA- and ATAC-sequencing approaches, together with footprint and integrated gene regulatory network analyses, we here identify key differences during the differentiation of NSCs into astrocytes under physiological and inflammatory settings. In agreement with its role to turn cells resistant to inflammatory challenges, we detect Nrf2 as a master transcription factor supporting the astrocytic differentiation under TNF exposure. Further, under these conditions, we unravel additional transcriptional regulatory hubs, including Stat3, Smad3, Cebpb, and Nfkb2, highlighting the interplay among pathways underlying physiological astrocytic developmental processes and those involved in inflammatory responses, resulting in discrete astrocytic phenotypes. Overall, our study reports key transcriptional and epigenetic changes leading to the identification of molecular regulators of astrocytic differentiation. Furthermore, our analyses provide a valuable resource for understanding inflammation-induced astrocytic phenotypes that might contribute to the development and progression of CNS disorders with an inflammatory component.

NF-κB and TNF Affect the Astrocytic Differentiation from Neural Stem Cells.

The NF-κB signaling pathway is crucial during development and inflammatory processes. We have previously shown that NF-κB activation induces dedifferentiation of astrocytes into neural progenitor cells (NPCs). Here, we provide evidence  that the NF-κB pathway plays also a fundamental role during the differentiation of NPCs into astrocytes. First, we show that the NF-κB pathway is essential to initiate astrocytic differentiation as its early inhibition induces NPC apoptosis and impedes their differentiation. Second, we demonstrate that persistent NF-κB activation affects NPC-derived astrocyte differentiation. Tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-treated NPCs show NF-κB activation, maintain their multipotential and proliferation properties, display persistent expression of immature markers and inhibit astrocyte markers. Third, we analyze the effect of  NF-κB activation on the main known astrocytic differentiation pathways, such as NOTCH and JAK-STAT. Our findings suggest that the NF-κB pathway plays a dual fundamental role during NPC differentiation into astrocytes: it promotes astrocyte specification, but its persistent activation impedes their differentiation.

A2A R-induced transcriptional deregulation in astrocytes: An in vitro study.

Adenosine A2A receptors (A2A R) are modulators of various physiological processes essential for brain homeostasis and fine synaptic tuning. In certain neurodegenerative conditions, notably Alzheimer's disease (AD), A2A Rs are pathologically upregulated in neurons but also in astrocytes. In that context, the use of A2A Rs inhibitors, normalizing impaired receptor function, is seen as a potential therapeutic strategy. However, the impact of A2A R alterations, particularly in astrocytes, is not fully understood. Here, we investigated the effect of A2A R overexpression on transcriptional deregulation in primary astrocytic cultures. By performing whole transcriptome analysis, we found that A2A R overexpression promotes robust transcriptional changes, mostly affecting immune response, angiogenesis, and cell activation-related genes. Importantly, we observed that treatment with SCH58261, a selective A2A R antagonist, restored the expression levels of several inflammatory and astrocytic activation-related genes, such as Interleukin-1beta and vimentin. This supports the notion that A2A R blockade could restore some astrocytic dysfunctions associated with abnormal A2A R expression, further arguing for a potential beneficial impact of receptor antagonists in A2A R-induced transcriptional deregulation, inflammation, and astrogliosis. Overall, our findings provide novel insights into the putative impact of A2A R overexpression on transcriptional deregulation in astrocytes, thereby opening novel avenues for the use of A2A R antagonists as potential therapeutic strategy in neurodegenerative diseases.

Transcriptional and epigenetic mechanisms underlying astrocyte identity.

Astrocytes play a significant role in coordinating neural development and provide critical support for the function of the CNS. They possess important adaptation capacities that range from their transition towards reactive astrocytes to their ability to undergo reprogramming, thereby revealing their potential to retain latent features of neural progenitor cells. We propose that the mechanisms underlying reactive astrogliosis or astrocyte reprogramming provide an opportunity for initiating neuronal regeneration, a process that is notably reduced in the mammalian nervous system throughout evolution. Conversely, this plasticity may also affect normal astrocytic functions resulting in pathologies ranging from neurodevelopmental disorders to neurodegenerative diseases and brain tumors. We postulate that epigenetic mechanisms linking extrinsic cues and intrinsic transcriptional programs are key factors to maintain astrocyte identity and function, and critically, to control the balance of regenerative and degenerative activity. Here, we will review the main evidences supporting this concept. We propose that unravelling the epigenetic and transcriptional mechanisms underlying the acquisition of astrocyte identity and plasticity, as well as understanding how these processes are modulated by the local microenvironment under specific threatening or pathological conditions, may pave the way to new therapeutic avenues for several neurological disorders including neurodegenerative diseases and brain tumors of astrocytic lineage.

Epigenetics in Parkinson's Disease.

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a highly complex neurodegenerative disorder with a multifactorial origin. Although several cellular mechanisms and genes have been implicated in the onset and progression of the disease, the precise molecular underpinnings of the disease remain unclear. In this context, epigenetic modulation of gene expression by environmental factors is emerging as an important mechanism in PD and in other neurodegenerative disorders. Thus, epigenetic mechanisms, such as DNA methylation, histone modifications and altered microRNA expression, have been under intense investigation due to their possible involvement in PD. Epigenetic modulation is responsible for inducing differential gene expression, a phenomenon which is essential throughout life in order to regulate multiple cellular responses such as development, cellular fate commitment and adaptation to the environment. Disturbances of a balanced gene expression can, therefore, have detrimental effects. Environmental factors can challenge the establishment and maintenance of epigenetic modifications and could thereby fill the gap in our further understanding of origin and/or progression of neurodegenerative diseases. In this chapter, we focus on the role of epigenetics in PD.

Cellular models as tools for the study of the role of alpha-synuclein in Parkinson's disease.

Neurodegenerative diseases are highly debilitating conditions characterised primarily by progressive neuronal loss and impairment of the nervous system. Parkinson's disease (PD) is one of the most common of these disorders, affecting 1-2% of the population above the age of 65. Although the underlying mechanisms of PD have been extensively studied, we still lack a full understanding of the molecular underpinnings of the disease. Thus, the in vitro and in vivo models currently used are able to only partially recapitulate the typical phenotypes of the disease. Here, we review various cell culture models currently used to study the molecular basis of PD, with a focus on alpha-synuclein-associated molecular pathologies. We also discuss how different cell models may constitute powerful tools for high-throughput screening of molecules capable of modulating alpha-synuclein toxicity.

Sodium butyrate rescues dopaminergic cells from alpha-synuclein-induced transcriptional deregulation and DNA damage.

Alpha-synuclein (aSyn) is considered a major culprit in Parkinson's disease (PD) pathophysiology. However, the precise molecular function of the protein remains elusive. Recent evidence suggests that aSyn may play a role on transcription regulation, possibly by modulating the acetylation status of histones. Our study aimed at evaluating the impact of wild-type (WT) and mutant A30P aSyn on gene expression, in a dopaminergic neuronal cell model, and decipher potential mechanisms underlying aSyn-mediated transcriptional deregulation. We performed gene expression analysis using RNA-sequencing in Lund Human Mesencephalic (LUHMES) cells expressing endogenous (control) or increased levels of WT or A30P aSyn. Compared to control cells, cells expressing both aSyn variants exhibited robust changes in the expression of several genes, including downregulation of major genes involved in DNA repair. WT aSyn, unlike A30P aSyn, promoted DNA damage and increased levels of phosphorylated p53. In dopaminergic neuronal cells, increased aSyn expression led to reduced levels of acetylated histone 3. Importantly, treatment with sodium butyrate, a histone deacetylase inhibitor (HDACi), rescued WT aSyn-induced DNA damage, possibly via upregulation of genes involved in DNA repair. Overall, our findings provide novel and compelling insight into the mechanisms associated with aSyn neurotoxicity in dopaminergic cells, which could be ameliorated with an HDACi. Future studies will be crucial to further validate these findings and to define novel possible targets for intervention in PD.

Expression of the Parkinson's Disease-Associated Gene Alpha-Synuclein is Regulated by the Neuronal Cell Fate Determinant TRIM32.

Alpha-synuclein is an abundant neuronal protein which has been associated with physiological processes like synaptic function, neurogenesis, and neuronal differentiation but also with pathological neurodegeneration. Indeed, alpha-synuclein (snca) is one of the major genes implicated in Parkinson's disease (PD). However, little is known about the regulation of alpha-synuclein expression. Unveiling the mechanisms that control its regulation is of high importance, as it will enable to further investigate and comprehend the physiological role of alpha-synuclein as well as its potential contribution in the aetiology of PD. Previously, we have shown that the protein TRIM32 regulates fate specification of neural stem cells. Here, we investigated the impact of TRIM32 on snca expression regulation in vitro and in vivo in neural stem cells and neurons. We demonstrated that TRIM32 is positively influencing snca expression in a neuronal cell line, while the absence of TRIM32 is causing deregulated levels of snca transcripts. Finally, we provided evidence that TRIM32 binds to the promoter region of snca, suggesting a novel mechanism of its transcriptional regulation. On the one hand, the presented data link the PD-associated gene alpha-synuclein to the neuronal cell fate determinant TRIM32 and thereby support the concept that PD is a neurodevelopmental disorder. On the other hand, they imply that defects in olfactory bulb adult neurogenesis might contribute to early PD-associated non-motor symptoms like hyposmia.

The yin and yang of α-synuclein-associated epigenetics in Parkinson's disease.

Parkinson's disease is the second most prevalent neurodegenerative disorder. The main neuropathological hallmarks of the disease are the degeneration of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta and the accumulation of protein inclusions known as Lewy bodies. Recently, great attention has been given to the study of genes associated with both familial and sporadic forms of Parkinson's disease. Among them, the α-synuclein gene is believed to play a central role in the disease and is, therefore, one of the most studied genes. Parkinson's disease is a complex disorder and, as such, derives from the interaction between genetic and environmental factors. Here, we offer an update on the landscape of epigenetic-mediated regulation of gene expression that has been linked with α-synuclein and associated with Parkinson's disease. We also provide an overview of how epigenetic modifications can influence the transcription and/or translation of the α-synuclein gene and, on the other hand, how α-synuclein function/dysfunction can, per se, affect the epigenetic landscape. Finally, we discuss how a deeper understanding of the epigenetic profile of α-synuclein may enable the development of novel therapeutic approaches for Parkinson's disease and other synucleinopathies.

Neural stem cells in Parkinson's disease: a role for neurogenesis defects in onset and progression.

Parkinson's disease (PD) is the second most common neurodegenerative disorder, leading to a variety of motor and non-motor symptoms. Interestingly, non-motor symptoms often appear a decade or more before the first signs of motor symptoms. Some of these non-motor symptoms are remarkably similar to those observed in cases of impaired neurogenesis and several PD-related genes have been shown to play a role in embryonic or adult neurogenesis. Indeed, animal models deficient in Nurr1, Pitx3, SNCA and PINK1 display deregulated embryonic neurogenesis and LRRK2 and VPS35 have been implicated in neuronal development-related processes such as Wnt/ß-catenin signaling and neurite outgrowth. Moreover, adult neurogenesis is affected in both PD patients and PD animal models and is regulated by dopamine and dopaminergic (DA) receptors, by chronic neuroinflammation, such as that observed in PD, and by differential expression of wild-type or mutant forms of PD-related genes. Indeed, an increasing number of in vivo studies demonstrate a role for SNCA and LRRK2 in adult neurogenesis and in the generation and maintenance of DA neurons. Finally, the roles of PD-related genes, SNCA, LRRK2, VPS35, Parkin, PINK1 and DJ-1 have been studied in NSCs, progenitor cells and induced pluripotent stem cells, demonstrating a role for some of these genes in stem/progenitor cell proliferation and maintenance. Together, these studies strongly suggest a link between deregulated neurogenesis and the onset and progression of PD and present strong evidence that, in addition to a neurodegenerative disorder, PD can also be regarded as a developmental disorder.

Expression analysis of mir-17-5p, mir-20a and let-7a microRNAs and their target proteins in CD34+ bone marrow cells of patients with myelodysplastic syndromes.

Mir-17-5p and mir-20a, members of the mir-17-92 family, down-regulate E2F1, which is over-expressed in myelodysplastic syndromes (MDS). Moreover, let-7a down-regulates KRAS, which is aberrantly expressed in MDS. We evaluated the expression of the aforementioned microRNAs in CD34+ cells of 43 MDS patients using real-time PCR and their target proteins (E2F1, MYC, BCL2, CCND1, and KRAS) by Western blot. Mir-17-5p and mir-20a were under expressed in high risk MDS patients, compared to low risk MDS patients. Similarly, let-7a was under expressed in patients with intermediate or high-risk karyotype. Interestingly, there was an inverse correlation between microRNA and the expression levels of their targets. Importantly, mir-17-5p and mir-20a constitute favorable prognostic factors in MDS, since their expression was associated with increased overall survival of MDS patients.