Inositol polyphosphates promote T cell-independent humoral immunity via the regulation of Bruton's tyrosine kinase.

T cell-independent (TI) B cell response is critical for the early protection against pathogen invasion. The regulation and activation of Bruton's tyrosine kinase (Btk) is known as a pivotal step of B cell antigen receptor (BCR) signaling in TI humoral immunity, as observed in patients with X-linked agammaglobulinemia (XLA) experiencing a high incidence of encapsulated bacterial infections. However, key questions remain as to whether a well-established canonical BCR signaling pathway is sufficient to regulate the activity of Btk. Here, we find that inositol hexakisphosphate (InsP6) acts as a physiological regulator of Btk in BCR signaling. Absence of higher order inositol phosphates (InsPs), inositol polyphosphates, leads to an inability to mount immune response against TI antigens. Interestingly, the significance of InsP6-mediated Btk regulation is more prominent in IgM+ plasma cells. Hence, the present study identifies higher order InsPs as principal components of B cell activation upon TI antigen stimulation and presents a mechanism for InsP-mediated regulation of the BCR signaling.

A 1-phytase type III effector interferes with plant hormone signaling.

Most Gram-negative phytopathogenic bacteria inject type III effector (T3E) proteins into plant cells to manipulate signaling pathways to the pathogen's benefit. In resistant plants, specialized immune receptors recognize single T3Es or their biochemical activities, thus halting pathogen ingress. However, molecular function and mode of recognition for most T3Es remains elusive. Here, we show that the Xanthomonas T3E XopH possesses phytase activity, i.e., dephosphorylates phytate (myo-inositol-hexakisphosphate, InsP6), the major phosphate storage compound in plants, which is also involved in pathogen defense. A combination of biochemical approaches, including a new NMR-based method to discriminate inositol polyphosphate enantiomers, identifies XopH as a naturally occurring 1-phytase that dephosphorylates InsP6 at C1. Infection of Nicotiana benthamiana and pepper by Xanthomonas results in a XopH-dependent conversion of InsP6 to InsP5. 1-phytase activity is required for XopH-mediated immunity of plants carrying the Bs7 resistance gene, and for induction of jasmonate- and ethylene-responsive genes in N. benthamiana.

Inositol Pyrophosphate Specificity of the SPX-Dependent Polyphosphate Polymerase VTC.

The free energy of nucleotide hydrolysis depends on phosphate concentration. Cells regulate cytosolic phosphate levels by orchestrating phosphate acquisition and storage through inositol pyrophosphates (PP-InsP) and SPX domains. Here, we report the synthesis of the novel 5-PPP-InsP5 containing a triphosphate subunit. Using this and a series of synthetic PP-InsP, we examined the ligand specificity of the SPX domain in the PP-InsP-controlled yeast polyphosphate polymerase VTC. SPX decodes the relative positioning of the phosphoric anhydrides, their structure (diphosphate vs triphosphate), and the presence of other phosphates on the inositol ring. Despite the higher potency of 1,5-(PP)2-InsP4, 5-PP-InsP5 is the primary activator of VTC in cells, indicating that its higher concentration compensates for its lower potency. 1,5-(PP)2-InsP4 levels rise and could become relevant under stress conditions. Thus, SPX domains may integrate PP-InsP dependent signaling to adapt cytosolic phosphate concentrations to different metabolic situations.

Inositol pyrophosphates inhibit synaptotagmin-dependent exocytosis.

Inositol pyrophosphates such as 5-diphosphoinositol pentakisphosphate (5-IP7) are highly energetic inositol metabolites containing phosphoanhydride bonds. Although inositol pyrophosphates are known to regulate various biological events, including growth, survival, and metabolism, the molecular sites of 5-IP7 action in vesicle trafficking have remained largely elusive. We report here that elevated 5-IP7 levels, caused by overexpression of inositol hexakisphosphate (IP6) kinase 1 (IP6K1), suppressed depolarization-induced neurotransmitter release from PC12 cells. Conversely, IP6K1 depletion decreased intracellular 5-IP7 concentrations, leading to increased neurotransmitter release. Consistently, knockdown of IP6K1 in cultured hippocampal neurons augmented action potential-driven synaptic vesicle exocytosis at synapses. Using a FRET-based in vitro vesicle fusion assay, we found that 5-IP7, but not 1-IP7, exhibited significantly higher inhibitory activity toward synaptic vesicle exocytosis than IP6 Synaptotagmin 1 (Syt1), a Ca(2+) sensor essential for synaptic membrane fusion, was identified as a molecular target of 5-IP7 Notably, 5-IP7 showed a 45-fold higher binding affinity for Syt1 compared with IP6 In addition, 5-IP7-dependent inhibition of synaptic vesicle fusion was abolished by increasing Ca(2+) levels. Thus, 5-IP7 appears to act through Syt1 binding to interfere with the fusogenic activity of Ca(2+) These findings reveal a role of 5-IP7 as a potent inhibitor of Syt1 in controlling the synaptic exocytotic pathway and expand our understanding of the signaling mechanisms of inositol pyrophosphates.

Control of eukaryotic phosphate homeostasis by inositol polyphosphate sensor domains.

Phosphorus is a macronutrient taken up by cells as inorganic phosphate (P(i)). How cells sense cellular P(i) levels is poorly characterized. Here, we report that SPX domains--which are found in eukaryotic phosphate transporters, signaling proteins, and inorganic polyphosphate polymerases--provide a basic binding surface for inositol polyphosphate signaling molecules (InsPs), the concentrations of which change in response to P(i) availability. Substitutions of critical binding surface residues impair InsP binding in vitro, inorganic polyphosphate synthesis in yeast, and P(i) transport in Arabidopsis In plants, InsPs trigger the association of SPX proteins with transcription factors to regulate P(i) starvation responses. We propose that InsPs communicate cytosolic P(i) levels to SPX domains and enable them to interact with a multitude of proteins to regulate P(i) uptake, transport, and storage in fungi, plants, and animals.

Cellular delivery and photochemical release of a caged inositol-pyrophosphate induces PH-domain translocation in cellulo.

Inositol pyrophosphates, such as diphospho-myo-inositol pentakisphosphates (InsP7), are an important family of signalling molecules, implicated in many cellular processes and therapeutic indications including insulin secretion, glucose homeostasis and weight gain. To understand their cellular functions, chemical tools such as photocaged analogues for their real-time modulation in cells are required. Here we describe a concise, modular synthesis of InsP7 and caged InsP7. The caged molecule is stable and releases InsP7 only on irradiation. While photocaged InsP7 does not enter cells, its cellular uptake is achieved using nanoparticles formed by association with a guanidinium-rich molecular transporter. This novel synthesis and unprecedented polyphosphate delivery strategy enable the first studies required to understand InsP7 signalling in cells with controlled spatiotemporal resolution. It is shown herein that cytoplasmic photouncaging of InsP7 leads to translocation of the PH-domain of Akt, an important signalling-node kinase involved in glucose homeostasis, from the membrane into the cytoplasm.

Prometabolites of 5-Diphospho-myo-inositol Pentakisphosphate.

Diphospho-myo-inositol phosphates (PP-InsP(y)) are an important class of cellular messengers. Thus far, no method for the transport of PP-InsP(y) into living cells is available. Owing to their high negative charge density, PP-InsP(y) will not cross the cell membrane. A strategy to circumvent this issue involves the generation of precursors in which the negative charges are masked with biolabile groups. A PP-InsP(y) prometabolite would require twelve to thirteen biolabile groups, which need to be cleaved by cellular enzymes to release the parent molecules. Such densely modified prometabolites of phosphate esters and anhydrides have never been reported to date. This study discloses the synthesis of such agents and an analysis of their metabolism in tissue homogenates by gel electrophoresis. The acetoxybenzyl-protected system is capable of releasing 5-PP-InsP5 in mammalian cell/tissue homogenates within a few minutes and can be used to release 5-PP-InsP5 inside cells. These molecules will serve as a platform for the development of fundamental tools required to study PP-InsP(y) physiology.