Eliciting conditioned taste aversion in lizards: Live toxic prey are more effective than scent and taste cues alone.

Conditioned taste aversion (CTA) is an adaptive learning mechanism whereby a consumer associates the taste of a certain food with symptoms caused by a toxic substance, and thereafter avoids eating that type of food. Recently, wildlife researchers have employed CTA to discourage native fauna from ingesting toxic cane toads (Rhinella marina), a species that is invading tropical Australia. In this paper, we compare the results of 2 sets of CTA trials on large varanid lizards ("goannas," Varanus panoptes). One set of trials (described in this paper) exposed recently-captured lizards to sausages made from cane toad flesh, laced with a nausea-inducing chemical (lithium chloride) to reinforce the aversion response. The other trials (in a recently-published paper, reviewed herein) exposed free-ranging lizards to live juvenile cane toads. The effectiveness of the training was judged by how long a lizard survived in the wild before it was killed (fatally poisoned) by a cane toad. Both stimuli elicited rapid aversion to live toads, but the CTA response did not enhance survival rates of the sausage-trained goannas after they were released into the wild. In contrast, the goannas exposed to live juvenile toads exhibited higher long-term survival rates than did untrained conspecifics. Our results suggest that although it is relatively easy to elicit short-term aversion to toad cues in goannas, a biologically realistic stimulus (live toads, encountered by free-ranging predators) is most effective at buffering these reptiles from the impact of invasive toxic prey.

Engagement and opportunity in clinical learning: findings from a case study in primary care.

BACKGROUND: This article explores in a primary care setting how clinical learning occurs across a range of professional groups and levels of learner experience, both undergraduate and postgraduate. AIM: To explore how clinical learning occurs in a primary care workplace from a socio-cultural perspective. METHOD: A single case study approach using interview data from 33 participants and strengthened through direct and indirect observations and documentary evidence. RESULTS: Clinical learning occurs through engagement and opportunity. Engagement in learning appeared to be developed through four elements: recognition, respect, relevance and emotion. Opportunity includes the availability of patient encounters (made meaningful through the immediacy of hearing patient narratives de novo and the authenticity arising from the social context of illness) and the ability to learn with peers and professional colleagues. CONCLUSION: These findings support and develop existing literature on learning in other clinical settings. They are consistent with socio-cultural theories of learning, but develop this literature within the context of clinical education. Engagement and learning occurred in transient learners in the absence of prolonged participation, belonging or a clear trajectory of learning. The study offers evidence from multiple learner perspectives as to how the learning environment might be enhanced in all educational settings.

Portfolio use in general practice vocational training: a survey of GP registrars.

BACKGROUND: Portfolios are increasingly advocated in medical education. Qualitative studies have suggested their value in stimulating experiential learning, promoting deep learning and encouraging reflection. This study explored the use of educational portfolios in reflective learning by general practice (GP) registrars in Yorkshire, England. METHOD: A postal questionnaire was sent to the 92 registrars of a deanery in November 2001, after a pilot study with registrars in a single district had been carried out. The questionnaire explored the registrars' use of the portfolio to collect information and for reflection, as well as registrars' attitudes towards the portfolio. It was returned by 71 registrars, representing a 77% response rate. Structured in-depth interviews were used to support the results obtained. RESULTS: Of the registrars who responded, 65% recorded information on a regular basis and 42% used the portfolio in reflective learning. Experienced registrars used the portfolio least. Those with supportive trainers used the portfolio more in reflection. CONCLUSIONS: The study suggests that the role of the trainer/supervisor is vital in portfolio-based learning. It raises questions about the acceptability of portfolio learning. It adds weight to the suggestion that careful introduction of portfolios and training of supervisors is vital. Further work to establish the role of portfolios in reflective learning is recommended.