Conservative and dietary interventions for cancer-related lymphedema: a systematic review and meta-analysis.

The findings support the use of compression garments and compression bandaging for reducing lymphedema volume in upper and lower extremity cancer-related lymphedema. Specific to breast cancer, a statistically significant, clinically small beneficial effect was found from the addition of manual lymph drainage massage to compression therapy for upper extremity lymphedema volume.

Predictors of adherence to supervised exercise in lymphoma patients participating in a randomized controlled trial.

Exercise improves health in lymphoma patients but the determinants of adherence in this population are unknown. The purpose of this study is to examine predictors of exercise adherence in lymphoma patients. In a randomized trial, 60 lymphoma patients were assigned to the exercise group and asked to attend three supervised exercise sessions per week for 12 weeks. Baseline data were collected on demographic, medical, fitness, psychosocial, and motivational variables. Adherence was assessed by objective attendance. Adherence was 77.8% and was significantly predicted by age (beta = 0.29; p = 0.016) and past exercise (beta = 0.27; p = 0.024); and borderline significantly predicted by previous treatments (beta = 0.22; p = 0.053), body mass index (beta = -0.21; p = 0.076), and smoking (beta = -0.19; p = 0.092). Poorer exercise adherence was experienced by lymphoma patients under age 40, insufficiently active at baseline, previously treated with radiation therapy, overweight or obese, and smokers. Findings may facilitate the development of targeted interventions to improve exercise adherence in this understudied patient population.

Moderator effects in a randomized controlled trial of exercise training in lymphoma patients.

BACKGROUND: The Healthy Exercise for Lymphoma Patients trial showed that aerobic exercise training improved important health outcomes in lymphoma patients. Here, we examine potential moderators of the exercise training response. METHODS: Lymphoma patients were stratified by major disease type and current treatment status and randomly assigned to usual care (n = 62) or aerobic exercise training (n = 60) for 12 weeks. Endpoints were quality of life, cardiovascular fitness, and body composition. Moderators were patient preference for group assignment, age, sex, marital status, disease stage, body mass index, and general health. RESULTS: Patient preference did not statistically moderate the effects of exercise training on quality of life (P for interaction = 0.36), but the interaction effect of 7.8 points favoring patients with no preference was clinically meaningful. Marital status (P for interaction = 0.083), general health (P for interaction = 0.012), and body mass index (P for interaction = 0.010) moderated the effects of aerobic exercise training on quality of life with better outcomes for unmarried versus married patients, patients in poor/fair health versus good-to-excellent health, and normal weight/obese versus overweight patients. Disease stage (P for interaction = 0.056) and general health (P for interaction = 0.012) moderated the effects of aerobic exercise training on body composition with better outcomes for patients with advanced disease versus early disease/no disease and patients in good health versus very good-to-excellent health. No variables moderated intervention effects on cardiovascular fitness. Findings were not explained by differences in adherence. CONCLUSIONS: Clinically available variables predicted quality of life and body composition responses to aerobic exercise training in lymphoma patients. If replicated, these results may inform future randomized trials and clinical practice.

Randomized controlled trial of the effects of aerobic exercise on physical functioning and quality of life in lymphoma patients.

PURPOSE: Lymphoma patients commonly experience declines in physical functioning and quality of life (QoL) that may be reversed with exercise training. PATIENTS AND METHODS: We conducted a randomized controlled trial in Edmonton, Alberta, Canada, between 2005 and 2008 that stratified 122 lymphoma patients by major disease type and current treatment status and randomly assigned them to usual care (UC; n = 62) or 12 weeks of supervised aerobic exercise training (AET; n = 60). Our primary end point was patient-rated physical functioning assessed by the Trial Outcome Index-Anemia. Secondary end points were overall QoL, psychosocial functioning, cardiovascular fitness, and body composition. RESULTS: Follow-up assessment for our primary end point was 96% (117 of 122) at postintervention and 90% (110 of 122) at 6-month follow-up. Median adherence to the supervised exercise program was 92%. At postintervention, AET was superior to UC for patient-rated physical functioning (mean group difference, +9.0; 95% CI, 2.0 to 16.0; P = .012), overall QoL (P = .021), fatigue (P = .013), happiness (P = .004), depression (P = .005), general health (P < .001), cardiovascular fitness (P < .001), and lean body mass (P = .008). Change in peak cardiovascular fitness mediated the change in patient-rated physical functioning. AET did not interfere with chemotherapy completion rate or treatment response. At 6-month follow-up, AET was still borderline or significantly superior to UC for overall QoL (P = .054), happiness (P = .034), and depression (P = .009) without an increased risk of disease recurrence/progression. CONCLUSION: AET significantly improved important patient-rated outcomes and objective physical functioning in lymphoma patients without interfering with medical treatments or response. Exercise training to improve cardiovascular fitness should be considered in the management of lymphoma patients.

Correlates of adherence to supervised exercise in patients awaiting surgical removal of malignant lung lesions: results of a pilot study.

PURPOSE/OBJECTIVES: To examine the demographic, medical, and social-cognitive correlates of adherence to a presurgical exercise training intervention in patients awaiting surgery for suspected malignant lung lesions. DESIGN: Pilot study, single-group, prospective design with convenience sampling. SETTING: Exercise training was performed at a university research fitness center in western Canada. SAMPLE: 19 patients awaiting surgical resection of suspected malignant lung lesions. METHODS: At baseline, participants completed a questionnaire including the Theory of Planned Behavior variables of perceived behavioral control, attitude, and subjective norm, as well as medical and demographic information. Participants were asked to attend five supervised exercise sessions per week during surgical wait time (X = 8 +/- 2.4 weeks). MAIN RESEARCH VARIABLES: Theory of Planned Behavior variables and exercise adherence. FINDINGS: Adherence to the exercise intervention was 73% (range = 0%-100%). Correlates of adherence were perceived behavioral control (r = 0.63; p = 0.004) and subjective norm (r = 0.51; p = 0.014). Participants with greater than 80% adherence reported significantly higher behavioral control than participants with less than 80% adherence (X difference = 1.1; 95% confidence interval = 0.1-2.2; p = 0.035). Men had better adherence than women (X difference = 24.9%; 95% confidence interval = 0.4-49.4; p = 0.047). CONCLUSIONS: Perceived behavioral control and subjective norm were the strongest correlates of exercise adherence. Women could be at risk for poor exercise adherence prior to lung surgery. IMPLICATIONS FOR NURSING: This information could be useful for clinicians in their attempts to improve adherence to exercise interventions in patients awaiting surgery for malignant lung lesions.

Effects of presurgical exercise training on systemic inflammatory markers among patients with malignant lung lesions.

Systemic inflammation plays an important role in the initiation, promotion, and progression of lung carcinogenesis. The effects of interventions to lower inflammation have not been explored. Accordingly, we conducted a pilot study to explore the effects of exercise training on changes in biomarkers of systemic inflammation among patients with malignant lung lesions. Using a single-group design, 12 patients with suspected operable lung cancer were provided with structured exercise training until surgical resection. Participants underwent cardiopulmonary exercise testing, 6 min walk testing, pulmonary function testing, and blood collection at baseline and immediately prior to surgical resection. Systemic inflammatory markers included intracellular adhesion molecule (ICAM)-1, macrophage inflammatory protein-1alpha, interleukin (IL)-6, IL-8, monocyte chemotactic protein-1, C-reactive protein, and tumor necrosis factor-alpha. The overall exercise adherence rate was 78%, with patients completing a mean of 30 +/- 25 sessions. Mean peak oxygen consumption increased 2.9 mL.kg-1.min-1 from baseline to presurgery (p = 0.016). Results indicate that exercise training resulted in a significant reduction in ICAM-1 (p = 0.041). Changes in other inflammatory markers did not reach statistical significance. Change in cardiorespiratory fitness was not associated with change in systemic inflammatory markers. This exploratory study provides an initial step for future studies to elucidate the potential role of exercise, as well as identify the underlying mechanisms of action, as a means of modulating the relationship between inflammation and cancer pathogenesis.

Effects of presurgical exercise training on quality of life in patients undergoing lung resection for suspected malignancy: a pilot study.

The aim of this study was to explore the effects of presurgical exercise training on quality of life (QOL) in patients with malignant lung lesions. Using a single-group prospective design, patients were enrolled in supervised aerobic exercise training for the duration of surgical wait time (mean 59.7 days). Participants completed assessments of cardiorespiratory fitness (peak oxygen consumption) and QOL using the Functional Assessment of Cancer Therapy-Lung scales, including the trial outcome index (TOI) and the lung cancer subscale (LCS) at baseline, immediately presurgery, and postsurgery (mean, 57 days). 9 participants provided complete data. Repeated-measures analysis indicated a significant effect for time on TOI (P = .006) and LCS (P = .009). Paired analysis revealed that QOL was unchanged after exercise training (ie, baseline to presurgery), but there were significant and clinically meaningful declines from presurgery to postsurgery in the LCS (-3.6, P = .021) and TOI (-8.3, P = .018). Change in peak oxygen consumption from presurgery to postsurgery was significantly associated with change in the LCS (r = 0.70, P = .036) and TOI (r = 0.70, P = .035). Exercise training did not improve QOL from baseline to presurgery. Significant declines in QOL after surgery seem to be related to declines in cardiorespiratory fitness. A randomized controlled trial is needed to further investigate these relationships.

Effects of aerobic exercise training in anemic cancer patients receiving darbepoetin alfa: a randomized controlled trial.

BACKGROUND: Anemia in patients with solid tumors is a common problem that is associated with impaired exercise capacity, increased fatigue, and lower quality of life (QoL). Erythropoiesis-stimulating agents (ESAs) have been shown to improve these outcomes; however, it is unknown if additional benefits can be achieved with aerobic exercise training. METHODS: We conducted a single-center, prospective, randomized, controlled trial in 55 mild-to-moderately anemic patients with solid tumors. Patients were randomized to either darbepoetin alfa alone (DAL, n = 29) or darbepoetin alfa plus aerobic exercise training (DEX; n = 26). The DEX group performed aerobic exercise training three times per week at 60%-100% of baseline exercise capacity for 12 weeks. The primary endpoint was QoL assessed by the Functional Assessment of Cancer Therapy-Anemia scale. Secondary endpoints were fatigue, cardiorespiratory fitness (VO(2peak)), hemoglobin (Hb) response, and darbepoetin alfa dosing. RESULTS: Intention-to-treat analyses indicated significant improvements in QoL and fatigue in both groups over time but there were no between-group differences. The DEX group had a significantly greater VO(2peak) than the DAL group (mean group difference, +3.0 ml/kg per minute; 95% confidence interval, 1.2-4.7; p = .001) and there were borderline significant differences in favor of the DEX group for Hb response and darbepoetin alfa dosing. CONCLUSIONS: Aerobic exercise training did not improve QoL or fatigue beyond the established benefits of DAL but it did result in favorable improvements in exercise capacity and a more rapid Hb response with lower dosing requirements. Our results may be useful to clinicians despite the more recent restrictions on the indications for ESAs.

Associations between exercise, quality of life, and fatigue in colorectal cancer survivors.

PURPOSE: This study was designed to examine quality of life and fatigue in colorectal cancer survivors meeting and not meeting public health exercise guidelines. METHODS: A Canadian provincial cancer registry identified colorectal cancer survivors who were mailed a questionnaire that assessed self-reported exercise, quality of life (Functional Assessment of Cancer Therapy - Colorectal), fatigue, medical, and demographic variables. RESULTS: Completed questionnaires were received from 413 (61.3 percent) eligible colorectal cancer survivors. Only 25.9 percent of colorectal cancer survivors reported meeting exercise guidelines. Colorectal cancer survivors meeting public health exercise guidelines reported clinically and significantly better quality of life (mean difference, 6; 95 percent confidence interval, 2.3-9.8; P = 0.002) and fatigue (mean difference = 5.2; 95 percent confidence interval, 2.9-7.5; P < 0.001). Differences remained after adjusting for medical and demographic factors. Cancer site (i.e., colon vs. rectal) was the only variable to moderate this association (P < 0.05 for interaction). CONCLUSIONS: Colorectal cancer survivors meeting public health exercise guidelines reported significantly and meaningfully better quality of life and fatigue scores than colorectal cancer survivors who did not meet guidelines. Prospective observational studies and randomized, controlled trials are needed to further assess the causal nature of these relationships.

Medical, demographic, and psychosocial correlates of exercise in colorectal cancer survivors: an application of self-determination theory.

OBJECTIVES: The purpose of the present study was to evaluate medical, demographic, and psychosocial correlates of exercise in colorectal cancer survivors (CRC-S) using self-determination theory (SDT). METHODS: Participants were 414 CRC-S who completed a mailed survey that assessed self-reported exercise, medical and demographic variables, and SDT constructs consisting of behavioral regulation for exercise, psychological needs satisfaction in exercise (PNSE), and perceived autonomy support (PAS). RESULTS: CRC-S with less education were significantly less likely to meet exercise guidelines (21 vs 31%; p < 0.001). Path analysis indicated that SDT and education explained 16% of the variance in exercise behavior with identified regulation (beta = 0.17, p = 0.031), introjected regulation (beta = 0.14, p = 0.006), and education (beta = 0.16, p < 0.001) each making a significant independent contribution. CONCLUSIONS: Few medical and demographic factors are correlates of regular exercise in CRC-S, but SDT provided a good understanding of exercise behavior in this population. Exercise behavior change interventions incorporating principles of SDT may have utility for promoting exercise and improving outcomes in this important population of cancer survivors.

Effects of presurgical exercise training on cardiorespiratory fitness among patients undergoing thoracic surgery for malignant lung lesions.

BACKGROUND: To determine the effects of preoperative exercise training on cardiorespiratory fitness in patients undergoing thoracic surgery for malignant lung lesions. METHODS: Using a single-group design, 25 patients with suspected operable lung cancer were provided with structured exercise training until surgical resection. Exercise training consisted of 5 endurance cycle ergometry sessions per week at intensities varying from 60% to 100% of baseline peak oxygen consumption (VO(2 peak)). Participants underwent cardiopulmonary exercise testing, 6-minute walk (6 MW), and pulmonary function testing at baseline, immediately before, and 30 days after surgical resection. RESULTS: Five patients were deemed ineligible before surgical resection and were removed from the analysis. Of the remaining 20 patients follow-up assessments were obtained for 18 (90%) before resection and 13 (65%) patients postresection. The overall adherence rate was 72%. Intention-to-treat analysis indicated that mean VO(2peak) increased by 2.4 mL . kg(-1) . min(-1)(95% confidence interval [CI], 1.0-3.8; P = .002) and 6MW distance increased 40 m (95% CI, 16-64; P = .003) baseline to presurgery. Per protocol analyses indicated that patients who attended >or=80% of prescribed sessions increased VO(2peak) and 6 MWD by 3.3 mL.kg(-1).min(-1) (95% CI, 1.1-5.4; P = .006) and 49 meters (95% CI, 12-85; P = .013), respectively. Exploratory analyses indicated that presurgical exercise capacity decreased postsurgery, but did not decrease beyond baseline values. CONCLUSIONS: Preoperative exercise training is a beneficial intervention to improve cardiorespiratory fitness in patients undergoing pulmonary resection. This benefit may have important implications for surgical outcome and postsurgical recovery in this population. Larger randomized controlled trials are warranted.

Cardiovascular risk profile of patients with HER2/neu-positive breast cancer treated with anthracycline-taxane-containing adjuvant chemotherapy and/or trastuzumab.

PURPOSE: To evaluate the cardiovascular risk profile of a subset of patients with early-stage breast cancer treated with adjuvant taxane-anthracycline-containing chemotherapy and/or trastuzumab (Herceptin). EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN: Twenty-six patients with breast cancer (mean, 20 months postchemotherapy) and 10 healthy age-matched women were studied. We measured 14 metabolic and vascular established cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk factors, body mass index, cardiorespiratory fitness, and left ventricular systolic function. All assessments were done within a 14-day period. RESULTS: Cardiac abnormalities were suggested by left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF) <50% in 8% of patients, LVEF remained >10% below pretreatment values in 38%, whereas 50% presented with resting sinus tachycardia. Brain natriuretic peptide was significantly elevated in 40% of patients and was correlated with LVEF (r = -0.72, P =or< 0.001). For the majority of CVD risk factors, similar proportions of patients and controls (35-60%) were classified as "undesirable." A significantly higher proportion of patients were classified with low cardiorespiratory fitness (46% versus 0%, P < 0.01), being overweight/obese (72% versus 50%, P < 0.05), and having resting sinus tachycardia (50% versus 0%, P < 0.01) compared with controls. Cardiorespiratory fitness and body mass index were correlated with CVD risk factors (r = -0.64 to 0.63, P < 0.05; r = -0.63 to 0.67, P < 0.05, respectively). Exploratory analyses revealed several differences between CVD risk factors based on chemotherapy regimen. CONCLUSION: Breast cancer survivors treated with adjuvant chemotherapy are at a higher risk of developing late-occurring CVD than age-matched controls due to direct and indirect treatment-related toxicity.

Safety and feasibility of cardiopulmonary exercise testing in patients with advanced cancer.

PURPOSE: The use of cardiopulmonary exercise testing (CPET) is increasing in many areas of disease management, the clinical utility of this procedure in patients with advanced cancer remains to be determined. Accordingly, we conducted a pilot study to comprehensively evaluate the safety and feasibility of CPET in 85 patients diagnosed with inoperable non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) or metastatic breast cancer (MBC). METHODS: Using a cross-sectional design, consecutive patients with histologically or cytologically confirmed inoperable NSCLC or MBC were screened for eligibility by their attending oncologist. All consenting patients performed complete pulmonary function tests (NSCLC only) and a symptom-limited CPET on a cycle ergometer with gas exchange analysis. RESULTS: A total of 85 patients (NSCLC, n=46; MBC, n=39) were recruited and tested. Overall, there were a total of three (3.5%) positive exercise tests [NSCLC, n=2 (4.3%); MBC, n=1 (2.6%)]; 68 (80.0%) negative tests [NSCLC, n=33 (71.7%); MBC, n=35 (89.7%)]; and 14 (16.5%) indeterminate tests [NSCLC, n=11 (23.3%); MBC, n=3 (7.7%)]. Two patients experienced an adverse event during exercise testing. Mean VO(2peak) was 17.0mlkg(-1)min(-1) and 16.5mlkg(-1)min(-1) for NSCLC and MBC patients, respectively. The mean percentage of age and sex-predicted VO(2peak) maximum for both groups was 67%. CONCLUSION: A symptom-limited, individualized CPET appears to be a relatively safe and feasible assessment tool to objectively evaluate physical functioning in selected patients with advanced cancer. This study provides important information to future investigations examining the potential role of exercise training in this patient population.

Exercise issues in older cancer survivors.

Older cancer survivors experience the combined deleterious effects associated with aging and a cancer diagnosis. The purpose of the present paper is to review the potential role of physical exercise in attenuating the effects of cancer and its treatments in older cancer survivors. Noting the limited direct research on exercise in older cancer survivors, we review the literature on: (a) older adults in general; and (b) cancer survivors in general. We conclude that although there is limited direct evidence on the benefits of exercise in older cancer survivors, there is compelling evidence of the benefits of exercise in cancer survivors in general and other older populations. We also conclude that exercise adherence will be a significant challenge in this population. Based on this evidence, we tentatively recommend exercise to older cancer survivors using the American College of Sports Medicine's [Med Sci Sports Exerc 30 (6) (1998) 992] guidelines for older adults in general. Finally, we offer future research directions that will provide important evidence needed to guide clinical decisions about exercise in older cancer survivors.