"They Might Be Wondering Why I Didn't Set My Sights Higher": Associative Stigma in Sexual and Romantic Relationships with Fat Partners.

Fatness and fat people are pervasively stigmatized in Western cultures, with significant negative implications for fat people's well-being. Negative evaluations of those in sexual and romantic relationships with fat people (i.e. associative stigma) may have harmful implications for shared relational well-being. Here, we examined whether non-fat (i.e. thin) sexual and romantic relationship partners of fat people experience associative stigma. First, we conducted a mixed-methods study with thin partners of fat people to elucidate their experiences of associative stigmatization and impacts on relational and sexual well-being. Many participants reported experiencing associative stigma, which, in tandem with relationship stigma, predicted lower relationship satisfaction but not sexual satisfaction. The most commonly reported experiences of associative stigma included others' assumptions that the fat partner is inferior, weight-based microaggressions, and negative attention in public. In a second, experimental study, we randomly assigned a second sample of participants to read one of 16 vignettes about mixed-weight (one fat and one thin partner; experimental condition) or same-weight (both thin; control) couples. Stimulus couples varied by target (thin partner) gender (male vs. female), relationship orientation (same-gender vs. other-gender), and relationship type (sexual vs. romantic). We found mixed support for our hypotheses that thin partners of fat people, relative to thin people in same-weight relationships, would be stigmatized. We conclude by calling for greater attention to the potential for associative stigma to influence sexual and romantic relationship outcomes.

Stereotype Application at the Intersection of Body Shape, Gender/Sex, and Sexual Orientation.

Though much work has examined how sexual orientation and body shape are jointly constituted, less has examined the joint perception of body shape, gender/sex, and sexuality. We draw upon multifarious person perception approaches to examine how personality and sexuality-related traits are attributed to bodies of varying shape (skinny, average, fat) when presented with differing social identities along the axes of gender/sex (male, female) and sexual orientation (heterosexual, lesbian/gay). In a sample of 991 participants, we found robust evidence that trait application varied by both body shape and sexual orientation. Further, supporting our hypotheses, we found that gay male bodies were perceived as more feminine than heterosexual male bodies, and skinny male bodies were perceived as more feminine than other body shapes. Supporting additional hypothesizing, lesbian female bodies were perceived as more masculine than heterosexual female bodies, and fat female bodies were perceived as the most masculine across sexual orientations. Partially supporting our hypotheses, we found that average bodies were perceived as the most typical for all identities; further, bodies perceived as less typical of their social identity category were perceived as experiencing heightened prejudice on the basis of body shape.

Gayzing Women's Bodies: Criticisms of Labia Depend on the Gender and Sexual Orientation of Perceivers.

The heterosexual male gaze is often credited with producing bodily anxieties among women, yet empirical and popular cultural evidence suggest gay men have especially negative views toward women's bodies, particularly women's genitalia. Across two studies (N = 6,129; Mage = 27.58; 2,047 women, 4,082 men) we conducted secondary analyses of existing datasets to test the hypotheses that gay men would evaluate labia more negatively than heterosexual men, and that lesbian women would evaluate labia more positively than heterosexual women. We conducted fixed-effects mini meta-analyses to estimate summary effect sizes for perceptions of normalcy and fit with societal ideals; we additionally assessed an outcome of disgust in Study 2. We found support for our hypotheses: For normalcy and societal ideal, we found small summary effects such that gay men evaluated labia more negatively than heterosexual men, and medium summary effects such that lesbian women evaluated labia more positively than heterosexual women. Gay men also rated labia as more disgusting than any other demographic group, and lesbian women rated the stimuli as less disgusting than heterosexual women, supporting our hypotheses. The current findings suggest a pressing need to acknowledge and incorporate gay men's perceptions of women's bodies into literatures on misogyny, objectification, and body image more generally.

Evaluations of Black and White Female Genitalia by Labiaplasty Status: A Pre-Registered Contextualization, Replication, and Extension of Findings on Labial Perceptions.

Labiaplasty is an increasingly common form of cosmetic surgery involving the removal of portions of the labia minora to achieve a smaller, more symmetrical labial appearance. Labiaplasty is inextricably linked to the colonial medicalization of Black women's labia, necessitating examination of labiaplasty and race in concert. Participants (N = 4351, Mage = 26.58; SDage = 8.89) were shown 12 randomized images of White and Black female genitalia - unaware that they were "before and after" images of labiaplasty procedures - and evaluated them on their alignment with societal ideals, personal ideals, perceived normalcy, and disgustingness. As hypothesized, postoperative labia were rated as more normal, more societally ideal, and more personally ideal than their preoperative counterparts; preoperative labia were rated as more disgusting than postoperative labia. Preoperative Black labia were perceived as more normal, more societally ideal, and more personally ideal, as well as less disgusting, than preoperative White labia. Postoperative White labia were perceived as more normal, more societally and personally ideal, and less disgusting than postoperative Black labia. Gender trends were inconclusive. Our findings point to the need for greater examination of how White bodily ideals shape evaluations of bodies, and for greater historical contextualization in research on labiaplasty.

Examining the Gendered Impacts of Technology-Facilitated Sexual Violence: A Mixed Methods Approach.

Technology-facilitated sexual violence (TFSV) is defined broadly as unwanted or unwelcome sexual behavior involving the use of technology, including online sexual harassment, online gender or sexuality-based harassment, online image-based abuse (colloquially known as "revenge porn"), and online sexual aggression/coercion (colloquially known as "sextortion"). The purpose of this study was to explore the victim impact of TFSV and to critically examine the positioning of TFSV as a gender-based harm; that is, a harm directed primarily towards women. This study employed a mixed methods approach, integrating quantitative online survey data (N = 333; Mage = 33.91 years; 63% women) with qualitative interview data (N = 10; Agerange = 24-46; 50% women) to gain a more comprehensive understanding of TFSV. We found that victims of TFSV experienced anxiety, stress, depression, loss of control, mistrust, multiple victimizations, poor academic/occupation functioning, problematic alcohol consumption, embarrassment, and online behavior changes (e.g., limiting personal information online) due to TFSV victimization. Individuals who experienced online image-based abuse reported greater distress on items of depression, anxiety, and occupational/academic functioning than did victims of other types of TFSV. The current study provides partial support for the gender similarities hypothesis that TFSV is not exclusively a gender-based harm; our findings suggest that women and men's TFSV experiences are similar for most TFSV types. Overall, the present study demonstrates the negative impact TFSV has for both women and men and highlights the need for greater awareness and increased support for all victims of this form of sexual violence.

The Influence of Body Shape on Impressions of Sexual Traits.

The assumptions people make from body shape can have serious implications for the well-being of the individuals inhabiting such bodies. Fat people are subject to pervasive and resilient social stigma and discrimination, leading to negative mental and physical health outcomes, including negative sexuality-related outcomes. Though previous studies have examined the personality traits attributed to, or the sexual attractiveness of, varying body shapes, no research has asked participants to make attributions of sexual traits to varying body shapes. The purpose of this study was thus to examine sexuality-related trait inferences made from body shapes. Participants (N = 891, 70% women, Mage = 25.28) were randomly assigned to view 5 computer-generated 3-dimensional body models of varying shapes developed using the skinned multi-person linear model. Participants rated their sexual attraction to each body and the degree to which each of 30 traits (10 personality and 20 sexual) applied. Results demonstrated that larger bodies are generally viewed as less sexually attractive. Further, constellations of sexuality traits were predicted reliably by body shape, demonstrating that people hold sexual stereotypes about a diverse range of body shapes. This study provides an initial comprehensive demonstration of the sexuality-specific traits associated with varying body shapes.

Forcible, Substance-facilitated, and Incapacitated Sexual Assault Among University Women: A Canadian Sample.

This study examined the frequency of sexual assault experiences in a sample of university women to understand the conditions under which sexual assault occurs, and compare alcohol and drug consumption patterns on the likelihood of experiencing sexual victimization. While patterns of victimization have been examined in American contexts, research on contemporary Canadian contexts is scant at present. We found that roughly 58% of the 377 university women in our sample attending one of three large Western Canadian universities in British Columbia reported having been sexually assaulted. These women reported a total of 528 incidents of sexual assault, with 56% of these involving substance-related nonpenetrative sex acts; 312 incidents were substance-related and 216 involved forcible sexual assault. The likelihood of sexual assault victimization was the highest among participants who identified as a sexual minority, consumed marijuana, and reported greater severity of recent alcohol consumption. The present research aims to inform sexual assault prevention and education efforts to reduce occurrences of victimization.

Perceptions of Female Genitalia Following Labiaplasty.

Labiaplasty - a common form of female genital cosmetic surgery involving the removal of portions of the labia minora - is becoming increasingly popular, yet little research has examined perceptions of postoperative labia relative to perceptions of unaltered labia. The purpose of this study was therefore to examine perceptions of preoperative and postoperative labia. A sample of 4513 participants - 42% women, 56% men, and 3% non-binary (Mage 27.01, SDage = 9.97) - was shown a randomized series of "before-and-after" images of labiaplasty procedures. Participants rated each image on how well it matched societal ideals, their personal ideal, and perceived normalcy in appearance. Our hypothesis that postoperative labia would be evaluated more favorably than preoperative labia on these constructs was supported. Individuals who specified their gender outside of the binary rated labia more positively overall; women rated labia more negatively than participants of other genders. Ratings were consistently low overall for both pre- and postoperative labia, suggesting critically negative perceptions of female genitalia. Our findings highlight a need for interventions and education to encourage more positive and accurate views of women's bodies.

I'll Show You Mine so You'll Show Me Yours: Motivations and Personality Variables in Photographic Exhibitionism.

Given that the sharing of genital images - colloquially known as "dick pics" - has become a widespread phenomenon, the purpose of the present study was to explore men's motivations for sending unsolicited images of their genitalia. A secondary purpose was to investigate the personality and sexuality characteristics of men who send dick pics relative to those who do not. 1,087 men completed an online survey, which included a demographic questionnaire and measures of narcissism, exhibitionism, erotophilia-erotophobia, and sexism. Also included was a measure developed specifically for the current study exploring the motivations behind sending unsolicited genital pictures as well as reactions senders hoped to elicit from their recipients. We determined that the most frequently reported motivational category for sending genital images was a transactional mindset (i.e., motivated by hopes of receiving images in return), while the most commonly desired reaction from recipients was that of sexual excitement. Further, we determined that men who reported having sent unsolicited dick pics demonstrated higher levels of narcissism and endorsed greater ambivalent and hostile sexism than their non-sending counterparts. This study is among the first to provide empirical evidence into the motivations and personality characteristics of men who send unsolicited dick pics.

The Influence of Sexual Orientation on Attributions of Blame Toward Victims of Sexual Assault.

Previous research has indicated that the sexual orientation of a sexual assault victim influences perceptions of blame. Although researchers have studied perceptions of blame toward straight and lesbian sexual assault victims, none have yet assessed perceptions of blame toward bisexual victims. The purpose of the current study is to examine perceptions of blame toward a female sexual assault victim and to determine whether the victim's sexual orientation impacts the level of attributed blame. Despite no previous research examining the impact of bisexuality on victim blaming, misconceptions that bisexual females are highly sexual, promiscuous, and untrustworthy make it likely that this population would be subject to greater levels of blame than either straight or lesbian victims. After random assignment to a vignette description of a sexual assault and completion of a victim-blaming questionnaire, results failed to support our hypotheses; participants did not blame the bisexual victim of sexual assault more than either the straight or lesbian victims. Further contrary to expected findings, males did not hold more blaming attitudes than females across conditions. Nonetheless, this study is important given the finding that attributions of blame influence whether sexual assault victims choose to disclose their assault, the failure of which can lead to negative mental health outcomes. Ultimately, the current study was a first step in understanding whether bisexual assault victims are evaluated differently than their straight and lesbian counterparts.

Sexistential Crisis: An Intersectional Analysis of Gender Expression and Sexual Orientation in Masculine Overcompensation.

Masculine overcompensation-a phenomenon where men react to masculinity threats by endorsing hypermasculine ideals-has been demonstrated among straight men but has yet to be examined among gay men. The current study therefore proposed to examine whether gay men overcompensate similarly to their straight counterparts by providing participants with randomized feedback that threatened their masculinity. Overcompensation was measured in 867 online respondents by administering a series of questionnaires regarding views of pornography, rape, sex roles, and political orientation. Although our hypothesis was not confirmed, results revealed the intersectionality of both sexual orientation and self-reported gender expression regarding the formation of different views and beliefs. Specifically, masculinity was differentially related to homophobic attitudes, more callous views toward victims of sexual assault, and various components of attitudes toward pornography in gay and straight men. Masculine gay males held stereotypically masculine views less strongly than their masculine straight counterparts, providing evidence that gay males adopt a different type of masculinity than straight males-something of a "masculinity lite." Such findings point to the converging influence of sexual orientation and gender expression as contributors relevant to the attitudes of gay and straight men. This information adds to a growing body of literature on differences between gay and straight men and can be used to inform theory, education, and clinical practice, particularly in settings where men grapple with the implications of their masculinity.