"There are many fevers": Communities' perception and management of Febrile illness and its relationship with human animal interactions in South-Western Uganda.

Diagnosing the causative agent of febrile illness in resource-limited countries is a challenge in part due to lack of adequate diagnostic infrastructure to confirm cause of infection. Most febrile illnesses (>60%) are non-malarial, with a significant proportion being zoonotic and likely from animal origins. To better characterize the pathways for zoonotic disease transmission and control in vulnerable communities, adequate information on the communities' experiences and lexicon describing fever, and their understanding and perceptions of risk pathways is required. We undertook an ethnographic study to understand behaviors, exposures, and attitudes toward fever at the community level. Our hope is to better elucidate areas of priority surveillance and diagnostic investment. A focused ethnography consisting of participant observation, informal conversations, 4 barazas (community meetings), and formal ethnographic interviews (13 Focus group discussions and 17 Key informant interviews) was conducted between April and November 2015 in Kasese and Hoima Districts in Uganda. Perception of illness and associated risk factors was heavily influenced by the predominant livelihood activity of the community. The term "fever" referred to multiple temperature elevating disease processes, recognized as distinct pathological occurrences. However, malaria was the illness often cited, treated, or diagnosed both at the health facilities and through self-diagnosis and treatment. As expected, fever is as an important health challenge affecting all ages. Recognition of malarial fever was consistent with a biomedical model of disease while non-malarial fevers were interpreted mainly through ethno etiological models of explanation. These models are currently being used to inform education and prevention strategies and treatment regimens toward the goal of improving patients' outcomes and confidence in the health system. Development of treatment algorithms that consider social, cultural, and economic contexts, especially where human-animal interaction is prevalent, should factor animal exposure and zoonotic illnesses as important differentials.

A descriptive study of zoonotic disease risk at the human-wildlife interface in a biodiversity hot spot in South Western Uganda.

Zoonotic diseases pose a significant health challenge at the human-wildlife interface, especially in Sub-Saharan Africa where ecosystem services contribute significantly to local livelihoods and individual well-being. In Uganda, the fragmented forests of Hoima district, form part of a "biodiversity and emerging infectious disease hotspot" composed of communities with high dependency on these wildlife protected areas, unaware of the associated health risks. We conducted a cross-sectional mixed methods study from March to May 2017 and interviewed 370 respondents, using a semi-structured questionnaire from eight villages neighbouring forest fragments in Hoima District, Uganda. Additionally, a total of ten (10) focus group discussions (FGDs) consisting of 6-10 men or women were conducted to further explore the drivers of hunting and perception of zoonotic disease risks at community level. Qualitative and quantitative data were analysed using content analysis and STATA version 12 respectively. We found twenty-nine percent (29.0%, CI: 24.4-33.9) of respondents were engaged in hunting of wildlife such as chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) and 45.8% (CI: 40.6-51.0), cane rats (Thryonomyidae spp). Acquisition of animal protein was among the main reasons why communities hunt (55.3%, CI: 50.1-60.4), followed by "cultural" and "medicinal" uses of wildlife and or its parts (22.7%, CI: 18.6-27.4). Results further revealed that hunting and bushmeat consumption is persistent for other perceived reasons like; bushmeat strengthens the body, helps mothers recover faster after delivery, boosts one's immunity and hunting is exercise for the body. However, respondents reported falling sick after consumption of bushmeat at least once (7.9%, CI: 5.3-11.1), with 5.3% (CI: 2.60-9.60) reporting similar symptoms among some family members. Generally, few respondents (37.0%, CI: 32.1-42.2) were aware of diseases transmissible from wildlife to humans, although 88.7% (CI: 85.0-92.0) had heard of Ebola or Marburg without context. Hunting non-human primate poses a health risk compared to edible rats (cane rats) and wild ruminants (cOR = 0.4, 95% CI = 0.1-0.9) and (cOR = 0.7, 95% CI = 0.2-2.1) respectively. Study suggests some of the pathways for zoonotic disease spillover to humans exist at interface areas driven by livelihoods, nutrition and cultural needs. This study offers opportunities for a comprehensive risk communication and health education strategy for communities living at the interface of wildlife and human interactions.

One Health capacity building in sub-Saharan Africa.

BACKGROUND: Africa of late has been faced with challenges that require a multidisciplinary and multisectoral approach to address them, and academic and non-academic institutions have played a key role in training and conducting research that would promote the One Health approach. OBJECTIVES: The objective of this review was to document networks and organizations conducting One Health training, research, and outreach in Africa, as one of a series of articles around the world. METHODS: Data for this review were collected from organizations through key contacts of the authors and their knowledge of networks they have worked with. Web searches were conducted using One Health, training, and research as key words for work done in Africa. RESULTS: Africa has major networks involved in One Health training, research, and outreach, with participation of both academic and non-academic institutions. This review highlights an effort in Africa to form networks to conduct multidisciplinary training and research. The main networks include Afrique One, Southern African Centre for Infectious Disease Surveillance (SACIDS), and One Health Central and Eastern Africa (OHCEA). CONCLUSIONS: Both academic and non-academic institutions and organizations have shown an interest to conduct multidisciplinary training and research in Africa for managing challenges that Africa is facing currently, especially the outbreak of infectious diseases.

Invasive American mink: linking pathogen risk between domestic and endangered carnivores.

Infectious diseases, in particular canine distemper virus (CDV), are an important threat to the viability of wild carnivore populations. CDV is thought to be transmitted by direct contact between individuals; therefore, the study of species interactions plays a pivotal role in understanding CDV transmission dynamics. However, CDV often appears to move between populations that are ecologically isolated, possibly through bridge hosts that interact with both species. This study investigated how an introduced species could alter multihost interactions and act as a bridge host in a novel carnivore assemblage of domestic dogs (Canis familiaris), invasive American mink (Neovison vison), and threatened river otters (Lontra provocax) in southern Chile. We found that rural dogs interact with mink near farms whereas in riparian habitats, minks and river otters shared the same latrines with both species visiting sites frequently within time intervals well within CDV environmental persistence. No interactions were observed between dogs and otters at either location. Both dog and mink populations were serologically positive for CDV, making the pathogen transfer risk to otters a conservation concern. Altogether, introduced mink in this ecosystem have the potential to act as bridge hosts between domestic dogs and endangered carnivores.

Challenges in cryopreservation of clouded leopard (Neofelis nebulosa) spermatozoa.

The clouded leopard (Neofelis nebulosa) is an endangered species that is difficult to breed in captivity. Species management could benefit from the use of artificial insemination (AI) with frozen-thawed spermatozoa, but there have been no detailed studies of sperm cryosensitivity. The purposes of this study were to: (1) re-characterize seminal characteristics in the clouded leopard 20 years after the first descriptive studies Wildt et al., [Wildt DE, Howard JG, Hall LL, Bush M. Reproductive physiology of the clouded leopard. I. Electroejaculates contain high proportions of pleiomorphic spermatozoa throughout the year. Biol Reprod 1986; 34: 937-947]; and (2) conduct a comparative cryopreservation study on the feasibility of sperm from this species surviving a freeze-thawing stress. Ejaculates were collected from five adult males and subjected to standard analysis, followed by a two-step straw freezing protocol that evaluated the impact of thawing, dilution, centrifugation and in vitro culture (through 4 h) on sperm motility and acrosomal integrity. Additionally, we assessed the impact of both a traditional permeating cryoprotectant (glycerol at a final dilution of 4%) and an unconventional nonpermeating trisaccharide; raffinose (R) at a final dilution of 4% or 8%, with or without 4% glycerol on sperm cryosurvival. The clouded leopard produced an extremely poor quality ejaculate; although approximately 70% of fresh sperm were motile, >80% were malformed. Phase contrast microscopy revealed that 40% of all sperm had abnormal acrosomes, but Coomassie blue staining indicated that acrosomal abnormalities existed in almost 70% of spermatozoa. Upon freeze-thawing, sperm motility declined markedly (P < 0.05) by an average of 40%, regardless of diluent used. Interestingly, raffinose was as effective as glycerol in protecting both sperm motility and acrosomal integrity. Although no acrosomal damage was seen immediately after thawing, < 6% morphologically normal intact acrosomes were present by the last measured time point. In conclusion, the clouded leopard is a rare felid that (at least in North American zoos) is producing extraordinarily poor quality ejaculates. There are so many sperm with unexplained deranged acrosomes that it will be particularly challenging to use traditional AI with thawed sperm as an adjunct management tool.