Engineered myoglobin as a catalyst for atom transfer radical cyclisation.

Myoglobin was subjected to site-directed mutagenesis and transformed into a catalyst able to perform atom transfer radical cyclisation reactions, i.e. intramolecular atom transfer radical additions. Replacing the iron-coordinating histidine with serine, or introducing small changes inside or at the entrance of the active site, transformed the completely inactive wild-type myoglobin into an artificial metalloenzyme able to catalyse the 5-exo cyclisation of halogenated unsaturated compounds for the synthesis of γ-lactams. This new-to-nature activity was achieved not only with purified protein but also in crude cell lysate and in whole cells.

Peroxidase Activity of Myoglobin Variants Reconstituted with Artificial Cofactors.

Myoglobin (Mb) can react with hydrogen peroxide (H2 O2 ) to form a highly active intermediate compound and catalyse oxidation reactions. To enhance this activity, known as pseudo-peroxidase activity, previous studies have focused on the modification of key amino acid residues of Mb or the heme cofactor. In this work, the Mb scaffold (apo-Mb) was systematically reconstituted with a set of cofactors based on six metal ions and two ligands. These Mb variants were fully characterised by UV-Vis spectroscopy, circular dichroism (CD) spectroscopy, inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) and native mass spectrometry (nMS). The steady-state kinetics of guaiacol oxidation and 2,4,6-trichlorophenol (TCP) dehalogenation catalysed by Mb variants were determined. Mb variants with iron chlorin e6 (Fe-Ce6) and manganese chlorin e6 (Mn-Ce6) cofactors were found to have improved catalytic efficiency for both guaiacol and TCP substrates in comparison with wild-type Mb, i. e. Fe-protoporphyrin IX-Mb. Furthermore, the selected cofactors were incorporated into the scaffold of a Mb mutant, swMb H64D. Enhanced peroxidase activity for both substrates were found via the reconstitution of Fe-Ce6 into the mutant scaffold.

Systematic engineering of artificial metalloenzymes for new-to-nature reactions.

Artificial metalloenzymes (ArMs) catalyzing new-to-nature reactions could play an important role in transitioning toward a sustainable economy. While ArMs have been created for various transformations, attempts at their genetic optimization have been case specific and resulted mostly in modest improvements. To realize their full potential, methods to rapidly discover active ArM variants for ideally any reaction of interest are required. Here, we introduce a reaction-independent, automation-compatible platform, which relies on periplasmic compartmentalization in Escherichia coli to rapidly and reliably engineer ArMs based on the biotin-streptavidin technology. We systematically assess 400 ArM mutants for five bioorthogonal transformations involving different metals, reaction mechanisms, and reactants, which include novel ArMs for gold-catalyzed hydroamination and hydroarylation. Activity enhancements up to 15-fold highlight the potential of the systematic approach. Furthermore, we suggest smart screening strategies and build machine learning models that accurately predict ArM activity from sequence, which has crucial implications for future ArM development.

Rapid quantification of the malaria biomarker hemozoin by improved biocatalytically initiated precipitation atom transfer radical polymerizations.

The fight against tropical diseases such as malaria requires the development of innovative biosensing techniques. Diagnostics must be rapid and robust to ensure prompt case management and to avoid further transmission. The malaria biomarker hemozoin can catalyze atom transfer radical polymerizations (ATRP), which we exploit in a polymerization-amplified biosensing assay for hemozoin based on the precipitation polymerization of N-isopropyl acrylamide (NIPAAm). The reaction conditions are systematically investigated using synthetic hemozoin to gain fundamental understanding of the involved reactions and to greatly reduce the amplification time, while maintaining the sensitivity of the assay. The use of excess ascorbate allows oxygen to be consumed in situ but leads to the formation of reactive oxygen species and to the decomposition of the initiator 2-hydroxyethyl 2-bromoisobutyrate (HEBIB). Addition of sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) and pyruvate results in better differentiation between the blank and hemozoin-containing samples. Optimized reaction conditions (including reagents, pH, and temperature) reduce the amplification time from 37 ± 5 min to 3 ± 0.5 min while maintaining a low limit of detection of 1.06 ng mL-1. The short amplification time brings the precipitation polymerization assay a step closer to a point-of-care diagnostic device for malaria. Future efforts will be dedicated to the isolation of hemozoin from clinical samples.

Enzyme-initiated free radical polymerizations of vinyl monomers using horseradish peroxidase.

In this chapter, we highlight the use of horseradish peroxidase (HRP) as a catalyst to initiate free radical polymerizations of vinyl monomers under benign reaction conditions. A variety of vinyl monomers, including 4-acryloylmorpholine (AM), 2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate (HEMA), and poly(ethylene glycol) methyl ether acrylate (PEGA) were polymerized. The enzyme converts exogenous hydrogen peroxide into a usable radical source, which when coupled with a ß-diketone, yields a radical that initiates chain growth in the presence of monomers. The resulting polymers were characterized using nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy and gel permeation chromatography (GPC). By using enzymatic free radical polymerizations, polymers can be generated in a sustainable, environmentally-friendly, and scalable fashion.

Biocatalytic ATRP in solution and on surfaces.

The promiscuity of enzymes allows for their implementation as catalysts for non-native chemical transformations. Utilizing the redox activity of metalloenzymes under activator regenerated by electron transfer (ARGET) ATRP conditions, well-controlled and defined polymers can be generated. In this chapter, we review bioATRP in solution and on surfaces and provide experimental protocols for hemoglobin-catalyzed ATRP and for surface-initiated biocatalytic ATRP. This chapter highlights the polymerization of acrylate and acrylamide monomers and provides detailed experimental protocols for the characterization of the polymers and of the polymer brushes.

Genetic Engineering of an Artificial Metalloenzyme for Transfer Hydrogenation of a Self-Immolative Substrate in Escherichia coli's Periplasm.

Artificial metalloenzymes (ArMs), which combine an abiotic metal cofactor with a protein scaffold, catalyze various synthetically useful transformations. To complement the natural enzymes' repertoire, effective optimization protocols to improve ArM's performance are required. Here we report on our efforts to optimize the activity of an artificial transfer hydrogenase (ATHase) using Escherichia coli whole cells. For this purpose, we rely on a self-immolative quinolinium substrate which, upon reduction, releases fluorescent umbelliferone, thus allowing efficient screening. Introduction of a loop in the immediate proximity of the Ir-cofactor afforded an ArM with up to 5-fold increase in transfer hydrogenation activity compared to the wild-type ATHase using purified mutants.

Artificial Metalloenzymes: Reaction Scope and Optimization Strategies.

The incorporation of a synthetic, catalytically competent metallocofactor into a protein scaffold to generate an artificial metalloenzyme (ArM) has been explored since the late 1970's. Progress in the ensuing years was limited by the tools available for both organometallic synthesis and protein engineering. Advances in both of these areas, combined with increased appreciation of the potential benefits of combining attractive features of both homogeneous catalysis and enzymatic catalysis, led to a resurgence of interest in ArMs starting in the early 2000's. Perhaps the most intriguing of potential ArM properties is their ability to endow homogeneous catalysts with a genetic memory. Indeed, incorporating a homogeneous catalyst into a genetically encoded scaffold offers the opportunity to improve ArM performance by directed evolution. This capability could, in turn, lead to improvements in ArM efficiency similar to those obtained for natural enzymes, providing systems suitable for practical applications and greater insight into the role of second coordination sphere interactions in organometallic catalysis. Since its renaissance in the early 2000's, different aspects of artificial metalloenzymes have been extensively reviewed and highlighted. Our intent is to provide a comprehensive overview of all work in the field up to December 2016, organized according to reaction class. Because of the wide range of non-natural reactions catalyzed by ArMs, this was done using a functional-group transformation classification. The review begins with a summary of the proteins and the anchoring strategies used to date for the creation of ArMs, followed by a historical perspective. Then follows a summary of the reactions catalyzed by ArMs and a concluding critical outlook. This analysis allows for comparison of similar reactions catalyzed by ArMs constructed using different metallocofactor anchoring strategies, cofactors, protein scaffolds, and mutagenesis strategies. These data will be used to construct a searchable Web site on ArMs that will be updated regularly by the authors.

Repurposing Biocatalysts to Control Radical Polymerizations.

Reversible-deactivation radical polymerizations (controlled radical polymerizations) have revolutionized and revitalized the field of polymer synthesis. While enzymes and other biologically derived catalysts have long been known to initiate free radical polymerizations, the ability of peroxidases, hemoglobin, laccases, enzyme-mimetics, chlorophylls, heme, red blood cells, bacteria, and other biocatalysts to control or initiate reversible-deactivation radical polymerizations has only been described recently. Here, the scope of biocatalytic atom transfer radical polymerizations (bioATRP), enzyme-initiated reversible addition-fragmentation chain transfer radical polymerizations (bioRAFT), biocatalytic organometallic-mediated radical polymerizations (bioOMRP), and biocatalytic reversible complexation mediated polymerizations (bioRCMP) is critically reviewed, and the potential of these reactions for the environmentally friendly synthesis of precision polymers, for the preparation of functional nanostructures, for the modification of surfaces, and for biosensing is discussed.

Improving the Catalytic Performance of an Artificial Metalloenzyme by Computational Design.

Artifical metalloenzymes combine the reactivity of small molecule catalysts with the selectivity of enzymes, and new methods are required to tune the catalytic properties of these systems for an application of interest. Structure-based computational design could help to identify amino acid mutations leading to improved catalytic activity and enantioselectivity. Here we describe the application of Rosetta Design for the genetic optimization of an artificial transfer hydrogenase (ATHase hereafter), [(η(5)-Cp*)Ir(pico)Cl] ⊂ WT hCA II (Cp* = Me5C5(-)), for the asymmetric reduction of a cyclic imine, the precursor of salsolsidine. Based on a crystal structure of the ATHase, computational design afforded four hCAII variants with protein backbone-stabilizing and hydrophobic cofactor-embedding mutations. In dansylamide-competition assays, these designs showed 46-64-fold improved affinity for the iridium pianostool complex [(η(5)-Cp*)Ir(pico)Cl]. Gratifyingly, the new designs yielded a significant improvement in both activity and enantioselectivity (from 70% ee (WT hCA II) to up to 92% ee and a 4-fold increase in total turnover number) for the production of (S)-salsolidine. Introducing additional hydrophobicity in the Cp*-moiety of the Ir-catalyst provided by adding a propyl substituent on the Cp* moiety yields the most (S)-selective (96% ee) ATHase reported to date. X-ray structural data indicate that the high enantioselectivity results from embedding the piano stool moiety within the protein, consistent with the computational model.

Cytotoxic effect of (1-methyl-1H-imidazol-2-yl)-methanamine and its derivatives in Pt(II) complexes on human carcinoma cell lines: a comparative study with cisplatin.

The synthesis and pharmacological characterisation of (1-methyl-1H-imidazol-2-yl)-methanamine and its derivatives in Pt(II) complexes are described. Six out of eleven new Pt(II) complexes showed a significant cytotoxic effect on NCI-H460 lung cancer cell line with EC50 values between 1.1 and 0.115 mM, determined by MTT assay. Compound Pt-4a showed a particularly more potent cytotoxic effect than the previously described Pt(II) complex with 2,2'-bipyridine, [Pt(bpy)Cl2], with an EC50 value equal to 172.7 µM versus 726.5 µM respectively, and similar potency of cisplatin (EC50=78.3 µM) in NCI-H460 cell line. The determination of the intracellular and DNA-bound concentrations of (195)Pt, as marker of the presence of the complexes, showed that the cytotoxic compound Pt-4a readily diffused into the cells to a similar extent of cisplatin and directly interacted with the nuclear DNA. Pt-4a induced both p53 and p21(Waf) expression in NCI-H460 cells similar to cisplatin. A direct comparison of the cytotoxic effect between compound Pt-4a and cisplatin on 12 different cancer cell lines demonstrated that compound Pt-4a was in general less potent than cisplatin, but it had a comparable cytotoxic effect on non-small-cell lung cancer NCI-H460 cells, and the colorectal cancer cells HCT-15 and HCT-116. Altogether, these results suggested that the Pt(II) complex with 1-methyl-1H-imidazol-2-yl)-methanamine (compound Pt-4a), displayed a significant cytotoxic activity in cancer cells. Similarly to cisplatin this compound interacts with nuclear DNA and induces both p53 and p21(waf), and thus it represents an interesting starting point for future optimisation of new Pt(II) complexes forming DNA adducts.