Plot and see! Maternal comprehension of growth charts worldwide.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate maternal comprehension of growth charts used in growth monitoring and promotion (GMP), a worldwide programme with important budgets but contrasting results. METHODS: Systematic literature review through MEDLINE, POPLINE, Global Health, ERIC and the Cochrane Library with the keywords 'growth monitoring' or 'growth chart' limited to the title/abstract field and to the 0-5 years age range. RESULTS: Twenty studies from Asia (8), Africa (8) and Latin America/Caribbean (3) were included in the review. The results of the 14 non-intervention, cross-sectional studies provide convincing evidence that a third to three-fourths of carers in developing countries do not understand the growth charts. Literacy had a strong effect on women's ability to interpret the cards. Appropriate training and educational activities also increased substantially maternal comprehension as demonstrated in five of the six intervention trials. CONCLUSIONS: Many carers have poor comprehension of growth charts, but their comprehension increases not only with literacy, but also with training. Activities aimed at improving communication skills of health staff and at empowering parents to practice responsive parenting could greatly improve GMP outcomes.

The nutritional phenotype in the age of metabolomics.

The concept of the nutritional phenotype is proposed as a defined and integrated set of genetic, proteomic, metabolomic, functional, and behavioral factors that, when measured, form the basis for assessment of human nutritional status. The nutritional phenotype integrates the effects of diet on disease/wellness and is the quantitative indication of the paths by which genes and environment exert their effects on health. Advances in technology and in fundamental biological knowledge make it possible to define and measure the nutritional phenotype accurately in a cross section of individuals with various states of health and disease. This growing base of data and knowledge could serve as a resource for all scientific disciplines involved in human health. Nutritional sciences should be a prime mover in making key decisions that include: what environmental inputs (in addition to diet) are needed; what genes/proteins/metabolites should be measured; what end-point phenotypes should be included; and what informatics tools are available to ask nutritionally relevant questions. Nutrition should be the major discipline establishing how the elements of the nutritional phenotype vary as a function of diet. Nutritional sciences should also be instrumental in linking the elements that are responsive to diet with the functional outcomes in organisms that derive from them. As the first step in this initiative, a prioritized list of genomic, proteomic, and metabolomic as well as functional and behavioral measures that defines a practically useful subset of the nutritional phenotype for use in clinical and epidemiological investigations must be developed. From this list, analytic platforms must then be identified that are capable of delivering highly quantitative data on these endpoints. This conceptualization of a nutritional phenotype provides a concrete form and substance to the recognized future of nutritional sciences as a field addressing diet, integrated metabolism, and health.

Metabolomics in the opening decade of the 21st century: building the roads to individualized health.

It is rapidly becoming possible to measure hundreds or thousands of metabolites in small samples of biological fluids or tissues. This makes it possible to assess the metabolic component of nutritional phenotypes and will allow individualized dietary recommendations. ASNS has to take action to ensure that appropriate technologies are developed and that metabolic databases are constructed with the right inputs and organization. The relations between diet and metabolomic profiles and between those profiles and health and disease must be established. ASNS also should consider the social implications of these advances and plan for their appropriate utilization.

Pulque intake during pregnancy and lactation in rural Mexico: alcohol and child growth from 1 to 57 months.

OBJECTIVE: To examine maternal intake of a mildly alcoholic beverage (pulque) during pregnancy and lactation, and its potential effect on postpartum child growth and attained size. DESIGN: A prospective cohort study that followed mothers (during pregnancy and lactation) and their offspring (from birth to approximately 57 months of age). SETTING: Six villages in rural, central Mexico. SUBJECTS: Subjects are 58 mother-child pairs. Pulque intake was measured as part of a dietary assessment that was conducted for 2days/month during pregnancy and early lactation. RESULTS: Most mothers consumed pulque during pregnancy (69.0%) and lactation (72.4%). Among pulque drinkers, the average ethanol intake was 125.1 g/week during pregnancy and 113.8 g/week during lactation. Greater pulque intake during lactation, independent of intake during pregnancy, was associated with slower weight and linear growth from 1 to 57 months, and smaller attained size at 57 months. Low-to-moderate pulque intake during pregnancy, in comparison to either nonconsumption or heavy intake, was also associated with greater stature at 57 months. CONCLUSIONS: Pulque intake during lactation may have adversely influenced postnatal growth in this population. Public health interventions are urgently needed in Mexico to reduce heavy intake of pulque by pregnant and lactating women, and to replace intake with foods that provide the vitamins and minerals present in the traditional alcoholic beverage.

Nutrition counseling increases weight gain among Brazilian children.

To assess the impact on child growth of the nutrition-counseling component of the Integrated Management of Childhood Illnesses (IMCI) strategy, a randomized trial was implemented. All 28 government health centers in a Southern Brazil city were paired according to baseline nutritional indicators. One center from each pair was randomly selected and its doctors received 20-h training in nutrition counseling. Thirty-three doctors were included and 12-13 patients < 18 mo of age from each doctor were recruited. The study included testing the knowledge of doctors, observing consultations and visiting the children at home 8, 45 and 180 d after the initial consultation. Maternal knowledge, practices and adherence to nutritional recommendations were assessed, and anthropometric measurements were taken. Day-long dietary intake was evaluated on a subsample of children. Doctors in the intervention group had better knowledge of child nutrition and improved assessment and counseling practices. Maternal recall of recommendations was higher in the intervention than in the control group, as was satisfaction with the consultation. Reported use of recommended foods was also increased. Daily fat intake was higher in the intervention than in the control group; mean daily intakes of energy and zinc also tended to improve. Children 12 mo of age or older had improved weight gain and a positive but nonsignificant improvement in length. Nutrition-counseling training improved doctors' performances, maternal practices and the diets and weight gain of children. The randomized design with blind outcome evaluation strongly supports a causal link. These results should be replicated in other settings.

Maternal consumption of pulque, a traditional central Mexican alcoholic beverage: relationships to infant growth and development.

OBJECTIVES: To document the consumption during pregnancy of pulque, a traditional central Mexican alcoholic beverage, and its relationship to subsequent infant size, physical growth and performance on the Bayley Scales of Infant Development. DESIGN: Prospective cohort study. SETTING: Six villages in rural, central Mexico in 1984-1985. SUBJECTS: Seventy mother-infant pairs. RESULTS: Most women (72.9%) consumed pulque during pregnancy, and 28.6% consumed more than 150 g ethanol week(-1) from the beverage. Individuals who consumed pulque showed no compensating decrease in energy obtained from other foods. Pulque consumption possessed curvilinear relationships with both infant length (at 1 and 6 months) and Bayley mental performance (at 6 months). Heavy pulque intakes were associated with smaller infant size and poorer mental performance. In modest quantities, pulque consumption may have been beneficial due to its micronutrient content. CONCLUSIONS: Intakes of alcohol from pulque were common among pregnant women in these rural, central Mexican villages. Given current scientific knowledge of the adverse effects of ethanol on foetal development, public health interventions are needed to reduce heavy pulque consumption during pregnancy in some areas of rural Mexico.

The role of care in nutrition programmes: current research and a research agenda.

The importance of cultural and behavioural factors in children's nutrition, particularly with regard to feeding, has been recognized only recently. The combination of evidence regarding the importance of caregiving behaviour for good nutrition, and improved strategies for measuring behaviour have led to a renewed interest in care. The UNICEF conceptual framework suggests that care, in addition to food security and health care services, are critical for children's survival, growth and development. The present paper focuses on the care practice of complementary feeding, specifically behavioural factors such as parental interaction patterns, feeding style and adaptation of feeding to the child's motor abilities (self-feeding or feeding by others). Three kinds of feeding styles (Birch & Fisher, 1995) are identified: controlling; laissez-faire; responsive. Probable effects of each feeding style on nutrient intake are described. A number of studies of feeding behaviour have suggested that the laissez-faire style is most frequently observed among families and communities with a higher prevalence of malnourished children. Nutrition interventions that have been able to show significant effects on outcomes, such as the Hearth Model in Vietnam (Sternin et al. 1997), have usually incorporated behavioural components in their intervention. At this time, there have been no tests of the efficacy of behavioural interventions to improve feeding practices. Research is needed to understand behavioural factors in complementary feeding, and to identify and test intervention strategies designed to improve nutrient intake of young children. Finally, the paper concludes with a discussion of how nutrition programmes might change if care were incorporated.

Care for nutrition and development.

Optimal growth and development depend not only on food quality and availability, on access to health care services and a healthy environment but also on the care provided to the child especially during the first few years of life. Care refers to the actions and practices of caregivers on a day to day basis that translate food, heakh care, and water and sanitation supplies into good growth and development of children. It includes behaviours such as feeding, sanitation and hygiene, home health practices, preparing food for children, and providing psychosocial support for development. Families also are responsible for providing care for girls in the family and women. Care requires resources--both skills and capabilities, as well as economic resources. Some resources are easily recognised, such as education of the caregiver, but others are less often seen, including time of the caregiver, motivation of caregiver and male family members, organisational resources such as child care centres, and the caregiver's ability to influence decisions about child care. It must be noted that the poorer the family, the more risks for children in the environment. Therefore, the poorer the environment, the more important a role care has in children's survival, growth and development. Implications for health care providers include assessing the care practices in the home, and resources for care when making recommendations; supporting positive practices already being performed in order to empower the caregiver; checking the understanding and recall of the caregiver; and finally, recognising that all children, regardless of gender, ethnicity, case, economic level, etc, have a right to good nutrition and health care in order to develop to their fullest potential under the Convention for the Rights of the Child, acceded to by India in 1992.

Research steps in the development and evaluation of public health interventions.

Presented is a conceptual framework for planning intervention-related research. Altogether, nine steps in the process of developing and evaluating public health interventions are specified. This process is dynamic and iterative, and all steps are not always required, or need follow in sequence. The framework can be used to set research priorities by verifying where there is sufficient knowledge to move forward and by identifying critical information gaps. It can also help select appropriate research designs, as each step is characterized by certain types of studies. Greater effort is required to move beyond descriptive epidemiological and behavioural studies, to intervention studies. Field trials of public health interventions require particular attention as they are often neglected, despite their significance for public health policy and practice.

[Nutrition and development in the first semester of life]. / Nutrición y desarrollo psicomotor durante el primer semestre de vida.

OBJECTIVE: To study the psychomotor development of young infants from a poor and underfed rural community and to correlate this with the nutritional conditions of the mother during pregnancy and the child itself. MATERIAL AND METHODS: We studied 82 mother-child pairs from the 5th month of pregnancy to the 6th month of life of the child as to anthropometry and food consumption. The neonatal Brazelton test and the Bayley test at 3 and 6 months were applied to the child. RESULTS: Several of the neonatal psychomotor tests applied to the child correlate positively with the mother's weight and skin folds, as well as with the child's own previous weight and size. This was also true for maternal consumption of animal foods and fruits during pregnancy. A negative correlation was observed with the consumption of corn tortillas and beans. The correlation of several tests applied to the child at six months was positive with its complementary consumption, total energy and several foods, specially egg, milk and fruit around three months of age. CONCLUSIONS: Small variations in nutrition of the mother-child pairs from the poor rural community studied had consequences on the psychomotor development of the infant. These findings point to the need for more applied nutrition programs.

Studying knowledge, culture, and behavior in applied medical anthropology.

In this article we argue that the concept of knowledge, as utilized by public health professionals, is best regarded as cultural belief, as defined in anthropology. The implications of this position are explored, particularly as it relates to the development of a decision-making approach to the understanding and analysis of health care behavior. The methodological challenges posed by the new theoretical perspective that has emerged from the emphasis on decision making is discussed from the perspective of applied research. The role of focused ethnographic studies is examined and contrasted with ethnomedicine and survey approaches. Some main features of focused ethnographic methods are described and illustrated with a case example of acute respiratory infection (ARI) in Gambia.

Examining the gender gap in nutrition: an example from rural Mexico.

Gender differences in nutrient and food intake were examined in Mexican Nutrition CRSP (Collaborative Research Support Program) infants (N = 75), preschoolers (N = 80), and school children (N = 91). No significant gender differences in dietary quality or quantity were seen for infants and preschoolers. For school children, the contribution of various foods to total energy intake (dietary quality) was also quite similar for girls and boys. Equity in dietary quality remained even under conditions of economic and demographic stress. Nevertheless, school girls consumed significantly less energy per day than boys (-300 kcal/d or 1.3 mJ/d), and less of all micronutrients examined. Gender differences in estimated basal metabolic rates of school children were slight (-20 kcal/d), and body composition and size were similar. When energy intakes were expressed as a percent of estimated requirement (calculated from age, sex and weight using WHO/FAO/UNU equations), intakes were adequate and not significantly different between girls (mean = 111%) and boys (mean = 113%). Playground observations showed girls to be less active than boys, which may reflect both cultural and biological influences. Apparently due to this lower activity, school girls consumed less energy, and may have been at much higher risk than boys of micronutrient deficiency. The lower food intakes of girls did not appear to be due to purposeful dietary discrimination, but rather to culturally patterned sex roles involving lower activity.

[Ethnography of acute respiratory infections in a rural zone of Mexican highlands]. / Etnografía de la infección respiratoria aguda en una zona rural del altiplano mexicano.

OBJECTIVE: To identify the terms used by mothers to refer to diseases, signs and symptoms related to acute respiratory illnesses (ARI), alarming signs which should motivate them to seek medical attention, and to describe common home practices of disease care and treatment. MATERIAL AND METHODS: An ethnographic study was performed in six rural communities of the Mexican central highlands. Interviews were collected from 12 key informers, six mothers of children who had died from ARI and 24 mothers of children younger than five years of age, with several ethnographic techniques to complement information ("triangulation"). RESULTS: The most commonly identified diseases were cold, sore throat, cough, bronchitis, pneumonia and "bronchopneumonia". Key signs to establish diagnosis included nasal discharge, sore throat, cough, head and body ache, fever. "bubbling" chest, general malaise and shortness of breath. Tachypnea was referred to as "strong breathing", "much breathing", "rapid breathing" or "sizzle"; intercostal depression as "the chest sinks", stridor as "chest moan or chest snore", sibilance as "chest snore" and cyanosis as "he turns purple". Home treatments include herbal teas, lemon, green or red tomato or potato applied to the throat externally, as well as creams applied to chest or back. Antibiotic prescription was not common, contrary to antipyretics. Most mothers recognized mild illnesses: severe illnesses were recognized less frequently. When faced with a severe ARI, mothers sought attention firstly at the project clinic, second in frequency with a private physician in the capital of the province and then at the Health Ministry of the district. The reasons to choose these possibilities were mainly proximity and lower costs. CONCLUSIONS: This information can be useful to improve communication with mothers.

Determinants of body size perceptions and dieting behavior in a multiethnic group of hospital staff women.

OBJECTIVE: This study was designed to identify determinants of body size perceptions and their relationship to dietary behavior in a multiethnic group of women. DESIGN: A single interview consisting of the Massara and Stunkard body image cards (1979) and questionnaires on sociocultural background, anthropometry, and dieting history were administered to volunteers from the staff of a hospital. SUBJECTS: The sample was a convenience sample of 186 women representing a range of staff positions recruited from Methodist Hospital in Brooklyn, NY; 174 completed the study. Data on 150 women are presented in this article. RESULTS: Height and weight-for-height were stronger predictors of accuracy of perceived body size than ethnicity. Tall, slight women were more likely to overestimate and short, heavy women were more likely to underestimate actual body size. Ethnicity had an interactive effect with height as taller European Americans were more likely to perceive their body size as larger than actual compared with Afro-Caribbeans and African Americans. Women with a history of dieting were more likely to overestimate their size and to view it as different from what is perceived as attractive to others. APPLICATIONS/CONCLUSIONS: Based on the results, we conclude that body size is a stronger predictor of accuracy of perceived body size than ethnicity; and dieters overestimate their body size and believe it to be heavier than their social group would prefer.

Methodological issues for eliciting local signs/symptoms/illness terms associated with acute respiratory illnesses.

Acute respiratory infections (ARI) are among the principal causes of mortality of children under 5 years of age. Most deaths are due to pneumonia, which, when timely identified and properly treated, could be avoided. An effective case management scheme, based on early recognition of pneumonia and prompt antibiotic treatment, relies on early recognition of alarm signs by mothers and community health workers. For mothers to understand and act on advice from health workers, language and concepts commonly used by mothers should be utilized. The present study was carried out to compare the relative effectiveness of two different methods to elicit local terms used by mothers to refer to ARI symptoms/signs/treatments. A comparison was made among the terms elicited by a free listing of common terms mentioned by mothers in relation to ARI, and the terms they recognized when looking at a video that showed children with different ARI signs. The video was shown in a community and a clinical setting, in order to identify strengths and weaknesses of showing it in these settings. The video elicited more signs dealing with serious illness, respiratory distress and general malaise, but missed non-visual signs, such as fever, lack of appetite or pain. Also, mothers tended to be distracted by trivial signs, such as skin color. Free listing was easier to administer and elicited more non-life-threatening symptoms/signs, but mothers were more prone to drift away and mention terms not related to respiratory illness. Showing the video in the clinic elicited more medical-related terms, and was easier to show than in the community. In conclusion, choice of either of the two methods depends on the researcher's purpose. Using both methods produced a larger list of terms associated with ARI.

Iron, vitamin B-12 and folate status in Mexico: associated factors in men and women and during pregnancy and lactation.

To determine the prevalence and causes of anemia in rural Mexico, blood samples and longitudinal dietary data were collected from 187 women, some pregnant and then lactating, and from 72 men. Blood was used to measure anemia, mean cell volume, and plasma ferritin, folate and vitamin B-12. Anemia was found in 33% of the men, 54% of nonpregnant, nonlactating women, 35% of pregnant women and 41% of lactating women, and varied by season. Low iron stores (ferritin) accompanied anemia in only 8% of men compared with 38-67% of women. Low meat intake and poor dietary iron bioavailability were associated with anemia in women. There were no cases of low plasma folate. Low plasma vitamin B-12 was common in all groups, and the incidence increased from 15% at 7 mo of pregnancy to 30% at 7 mo of lactation. Vitamin B-12 was lower in the plasma and milk of anemic lactating women than in plasma and milk of non-anemic lactating women and was classified as deficient in 62% of breast milk samples.

Integrated management of childhood illness: challenges from the community.

PIP: Following an integrated approach to the management of childhood illnesses provides an opportunity to increase the effectiveness of the delivery of primary health care services through the efficient use of case management interventions. However, the potential impact of this approach to morbidity and mortality depends ultimately upon its use, and various constraints to use exist. There are constraints that are characteristics of the services themselves (such as long waiting lines); there are constrains within households (ideational, psychological, and socioeconomic); and there are constraints within communities (systems of transportation as well as geographic and social barriers). Unfortunately, inadequate theory exists to facilitate efforts to overcome the constraints which require behavioral and social change. This is due, in part, to the low priority placed by societies on the development of applied social science, as contrasted with biomedical science. Whereas the main factors that affect the utilization of health resources are well known, the relative importance of these factors in different conditions and situations (and their mechanisms of interaction) are not understood. Therefore, strategies which work in one context fail in another. This situation will continue until efforts are made to develop more systematic approaches to these experiences. However, the main challenge is to apply existing research tools and techniques and develop new ones which will permit the measurement and analysis of social and behavioral variables in a way that contributes to our understanding of them. The successful institutionalization of integrated management of childhood illness will also require the adaptation of generic guidelines to local communities. This process depends upon information on community beliefs and practices as well as on ways to use such information. Current techniques, such as rapid assessment procedures and focused ethnographic studies, must be further refined to meet this challenge.^ieng

Focused ethnographic studies in the WHO Programme for the Control of Acute Respiratory Infections.

Focused Ethnographic Studies (FESs), developed and sponsored by the World Health Organization (WHO) Programme for the Control of Acute Respiratory Infections (ARI), have facilitated ethnographic research dedicated to determining key household behaviors and understandings surrounding respiratory infections--particularly pneumonia--in children. The FES design emphasizes anthropological theory and methods while limiting the scope and duration of fieldwork to a specific "program-relevant" research problem. Findings from FES studies provide evidence of the rich vocabulary of ARI-related signs and concepts, and the interplay of structural and cultural factors that affect care-seeking for children with pneumonia.