Long-term impacts of nitrogen deposition on coastal plant communities.

Nitrogen deposition has been shown to have significant impacts on a range of vegetation types resulting in eutrophication and species compositional change. Data from a re-survey of 89 coastal sites in Scotland, UK, c. 34 years after the initial survey were examined to assess the degree of change in species composition that could be accounted for by nitrogen deposition. There was an overall increase in the Ellenberg Indicator Value for nitrogen (EIV-N) of 0.15 between the surveys, with a clear shift to species characteristic of more eutrophic situations. This was most evident for Acid grassland, Fixed dune, Heath, Slack and Tall grass mire communities and despite falls in EIV-N for Improved grass, Strand and Wet grassland. The increase in EIV-N was highly correlated to the cumulative deposition between the surveys, and for sites in south-east Scotland, eutrophication impacts appear severe. Unlike other studies, there appears to have been no decline in species richness associated with nitrogen deposition, though losses of species were observed on sites with the very highest levels of SOx deposition. It appears that dune vegetation (specifically Fixed dune) shows evidence of eutrophication above 4.1 kg N ha(-1) yr(-1), or 5.92 kg N ha(-1) yr(-1) if the lower 95% confidence interval is used. Coastal vegetation appears highly sensitive to nitrogen deposition, and it is suggested that major changes could have occurred prior to the first survey in 1976.

Species composition of coastal dune vegetation in Scotland has proved resistant to climate change over a third of a century.

Climate change is expected to have an impact on plant communities as increased temperatures are expected to drive individual species' distributions polewards. The results of a revisitation study after c. 34 years of 89 coastal sites in Scotland, UK, were examined to assess the degree of shifts in species composition that could be accounted for by climate change. There was little evidence for either species retreat northwards or for plots to become more dominated by species with a more southern distribution. At a few sites where significant change occurred, the changes were accounted for by the invasion, or in one instance the removal, of woody species. Also, the vegetation types that showed the most sensitivity to change were all early successional types and changes were primarily the result of succession rather than climate-driven changes. Dune vegetation appears resistant to climate change impacts on the vegetation, either as the vegetation is inherently resistant to change, management prevents increased dominance of more southerly species or because of dispersal limitation to geographically isolated sites.

Identification of the central quorum sensing regulator of virulence in the enteric phytopathogen, Erwinia carotovora: the VirR repressor.

In the Gram-negative phytopathogen, Erwinia carotovora ssp. atroseptica (Eca) virulence depends on the production of a N-(3-oxohexanoyl)-L-homoserine lactone (OHHL) quorum sensing (QS) signal. This work identifies the elusive 'missing link' between QS and virulence in Erwinia. We have identified and characterized a novel regulator of virulence, VirR, in Eca and show that a virR mutation completely restores virulence factor production to an Eca mutant unable to synthesize OHHL. This effect of the virR mutation translates to a restoration of virulence to wild-type levels and thus provides evidence that VirR acts to prevent the production of virulence factors at low cell density. We also show that, in Eca, transcription of virulence genes is controlled by OHHL and that this control is effected through the action of VirR. We also demonstrate that the VirR regulatory pathway is present and functional in both blackleg and soft rotting species of Erwinia.

The Nep1-like proteins-a growing family of microbial elicitors of plant necrosis.

SUMMARY A novel family of microbial elicitors of plant necrosis has been identified. Designated Nep1-like proteins (NLPs), after the first family member isolated, they range from 24 to 26 kDa and are found in a variety of taxonomically unrelated micro-organisms. These include several fungi and oomycetes, as well as Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. Some NLPs induce a hypersensitive-like response in plants, although the basis for initiation of this response remains unclear. Similarly, the cellular role of such highly conserved proteins is undetermined. It is not clear whether the NLPs are dedicated elicitors of plant defences or whether this induction occurs as a result of another activity.

The regulation of virulence in phytopathogenic Erwinia species: quorum sensing, antibiotics and ecological considerations.

Erwinia carotovora is a Gram-negative bacterial phytopathogen that causes soft-rot disease and potato blackleg. The organism is environmentally widespread and exhibits an opportunistic plant pathogenesis. The ability to secrete multiple plant cell wall-degrading enzymes is a key virulence trait and exoenzyme production is responsive to multiple environmental and physiological cues. One important cue is the cell population density of the pathogen. Cell density is monitored via an acylated homoserine lactone (acyl HSL) signalling molecule, which is thought to diffuse between Erwinia cells in a process now commonly known as 'quorum sensing'. This molecule also acts as the chemical communication signal controlling production of a broad-spectrum beta-lactam antibiotic (1-carbapen-2-em-3-carboxylic acid; carbapenem) synthesised in concert with exoenzyme elaboration, possibly for niche defence. In antibiotic production control, quorum sensing acts at the level of transcriptional activation of the antibiotic biosynthetic cluster. This is achieved via a dedicated LuxR-type protein, CarR that is bound to the signalling molecule. The molecular relay connecting acyl HSL production and exoenzyme induction is not clear, despite the identification of a multitude of global regulatory genes, including those of the RsmA/rsmB system, impinging on enzyme synthesis. Quorum sensing control mediated by acyl HSLs is widespread in Gram-negative bacteria and is responsible for the regulation of diverse phenotypes. Although there is still a paucity of meaningful information on acyl HSL availability and in-situ biological function, there is growing evidence that such molecules play significant roles in microbial ecology.