Criminality rates in those sentenced for femicide in Mexico / Niveles de criminalidad en personas sentenciadas por el delito de feminicidio en México / Níveis de criminalidade em pessoas condenadas pelocrime de feminicídio no México

Introduction:Violence against women is a problem that affects the worldwide population, with its maximum expression being femicide. Due to the recent and unequal legislation regarding this phenomenon, recent studies have focused on identifying types of aggressors where criminal behavior plays an important role as a risk factor. Likewise, very few studies exist with people who have committed femicide. Objective:To determine the criminality rates in those sentenced for the crime of femicide. Materials and methods:A list with 20 dimensions was used to evaluate 62 people arrested for the crime of femicide. Results:4 levels of criminality were found, which can be classified from low to high; the principal indicators that marked differences between these levels where domestic violence and a history of alcohol and drug use. Conclusion:The indicators that marked the differences between the levels of criminality are a history of intimate partner violence used to resolve conflicts which is associated with use of alcohol and psychoactive drugs.

Introducción: La violencia en contra de la mujer es un problema que afecta a la población mundial, teniendo su máxima expresión a través del feminicidio. Debido a la reciente y desigual legislación de este fenómeno, estudios al respecto son recientes y han girado en torno a determinar tipologías de agresores donde la criminalidad juega un papel importante como factor de riesgo. Así mismo, existen muy pocos estudios directos con personas que han cometido feminicidio.Objetivo: Conocer el nivel de criminalidad en sentenciados por el delito de feminicidio. Materiales y métodos: A través de una lista con 20 dimensiones se evaluó a 62 personas privadas de su libertad por el delito de feminicidio.Resultados: Se encontraron cuatro niveles de criminalidad que van de baja a muy alta, los principales indicadores que marcan la diferencia entre estos niveles son los que se refieren a la violencia de pareja e historia de consumo de alcohol y drogas.Conclusión: Los indicadores que marcan la diferencia entre los niveles de criminalidad, se encuentran una historia de violencia hacia la pareja como una forma de resolver conflictos, asociada al consumo de alcohol y sustancias psicoactivas.

Introdução:A violência contra a mulher é um problema que afeta a população mundial, tendo sua expressão máxima por meio do feminicídio. Devido à recente e desigual legislação sobre o fenômeno, os estudos a respeito são recentes e têm girado em torno da determinação de tipos de agressores onde a criminalidade desempenha um papel importante como fator de risco. Da mesma forma, são poucos os estudos diretos com pessoas que cometeram feminicídio. Objetivo:Conhecer o nível de criminalidade em condenados pelo crime de feminicídio. Materiais e métodos:Através de uma lista com 20 dimensões, foram avaliadas 62 pessoas privadas de liberdade pelo crime de feminicídio. Resultados:Foram encontrados quatro níveis de criminalidade, que variam de baixo a muito alto, sendo que os principais indicadores que fazem a diferença entre esses níveis são aqueles relacionados à violência por parceiro íntimo e histórico de uso de álcool e drogas. Conclusão:A criminalidade surge como uma categoria de análise, que busca explicar algumas características nas pessoas que cometeram esse crime, porém, é preciso considerar outros fatores como cultura, estrutura social e características da população reclusa por feminicídio.

Propiedades psicométricas de la escala de adherencia terapéutica basada en comportamientos explícitos / Psychometric properties of the therapeutic adherence scale based on explicit behaviors

RESUMEN Fundamento: El estudio de la Adherencia Terapéutica es de vital importancia si se quiere que un paciente con condiciones crónicas se ciña a un esquema de tratamiento y es una de las áreas de investigación en la psicología, que permite la exploración e investigación para la implementación de pautas en esta área, por lo que contar con instrumentos que tengan adecuadas propiedades psicométricas facilita la labor de conocimiento sobre el tema. Objetivo: En esta investigación, se estudiaron las propiedades psicométricas de la Escala de Adherencia Terapéutica, en personas con diferentes enfermedades. Método: Se realizaron análisis factoriales, uno inicial de tipo exploratorio y luego uno de tipo confirmatorio. Se obtuvieron los estadísticos de bondad, así como la confiabilidad y la validez de la escala en su versión final. Resultados: En una primera fase se realizó un análisis factorial exploratorio con 193 participantes; los reactivos tuvieron un buen ajuste, agrupándose en una estructura de dos factores. En una segunda fase se confirmó la estructura de la EAT con 231 participantes. Los resultados demuestran que los estadísticos de bondad de ajuste fueron buenos; la confiabilidad de la EAT (Factor 1 α = 0,93, Factor 2 α = 0,76 y fiabilidad global α = 0,83), es adecuada con dos factores. En la tercera fase, se efectuaron análisis descriptivos, se compararon algunas variables sociodemográficas y se realizaron correlaciones entre variables, demostrándose que hay diferencias significativas por la presencia o no de hijos y que el puntaje total de la EAT se relaciona con la edad, la escolaridad y el número de hijos. Conclusiones: La EAT, tiene adecuadas propiedades psicométricas para su utilización en investigación sobre la adherencia al tratamiento en algunas condiciones médicas y probó que su modelo en dos factores, tiene adecuada bondad de ajuste.

ABSTRACT Foundation: the study of therapeutic adherence is of vital importance to ensure that a patient with chronic conditions adheres to a treatment scheme. This is a research area of psychology, which allows exploration for the implementation of guidelines in this regard. Having instruments that have adequate psychometric properties facilitates the work of knowledge on the subject. Objective: to describe psychometric properties of the therapeutic adherence scale, in people with different diseases. Methods: analyzes of factors were performed, an initial exploratory and then a confirmatory one. Goodness statistics were obtained, as well as the reliability and validity of the scale in its final version. Results: an exploratory factor analysis (first phase) was carried out with 193 participants; the reactive had a good fit, grouping into a two-factor structure. In a second phase, the scale structure was confirmed with 231 participants. Goodness-of-fit statistics were good; the scale reliability (factor 1 α = 0.93; factor 2 α = 0.76 and overall reliability α = 0.83), is adequate with two factors. In the third phase, descriptive analyzes, correlations between variables were carried out and some sociodemographic variables were compared. There were significant differences due to the presence or not of children; the total scale score is related to age, schooling and the number of children. Conclusions: the therapeutic adherence scale has adequate psychometric properties to be used in research on treatment adherence in some medical conditions; its two-factor model has adequate goodness of fit.

Age Hardening of Extruded AA 6005A Aluminium Alloy Powders.

Pre-alloyed micron-sized 6005A Al alloy (AA 6005A) powders, with a Mg/Si atomic ratio of 0.75, obtained by high pressure inert gas atomization were consolidated by uniaxial cold pressing at 200 MPa into cylindrical Al containers and hot extruded at 450, 480 and 500 °C with an extrusion rate of 7:1, followed by artificial T6 precipitation hardening. Ageing conditions were varied between 170 °C and 190 °C and times of 6, 7 and 8 hours. The microstructure of the extruded profiles was analysed using X-Ray diffractometry (XRD), light optical microscopy (LOM), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) was used to study the possible phase transformations. After our results, the peak-aging hardness condition was achieved at 180 °C for 6 h. Mechanical properties of the powder metallurgy (P/M) aluminium alloys consolidated by hot extrusion were superior to those of the extruded profiles of wrought alloy using conventional ingot metallurgy (I/M) billets. AA 6005A wrought P/M alloy via T6 heat treatment shown yield stress of 317 MPa and elongation of 21% at the extrusion pre-heating temperature of 500 °C.

Victimización, resiliencia y salud mental de estudiantes de universidad en Tamaulipas, México / Victimization, resilience and mental health of college students in Tamaulipas, Mexico / Vitimização, a resiliência e a saúde mental dos estudantes universitários em Tamaulipas, México

Resumen (analítico): En el estado de Tamaulipas, los conflictos entre grupos del crimen organizado han aumentado los niveles de violencia comunitaria. Realizamos un estudio observacional, transversal y analítico con 500 jóvenes estudiantes de universidad -hombres y mujeres-, con el objetivo de analizar la relación entre victimización directa e indirecta, resiliencia y sintomatología psicológica. Utilizamos diversas escalas para la medición de las variables y realizamos el análisis estadístico con Ji cuadrado, prueba t de Student, correlación de Pearson y análisis de regresión lineal múltiple. Encontramos diferencias por sexo en victimización y sintomatología psicológica, así como asociaciones significativas entre victimización y sintomatología. La relación entre victimización y sintomatología psicológica es regulada por la resiliencia. Se requiere considerar esta variable en los programas de prevención dirigidos a las personas jóvenes expuestas a violencia comunitaria.

Abstract (analytical): In the state of Tamaulipas, conflicts between organized crime groups have increased levels of community violence. An observational, cross-sectional analytical study with 500 university students, both men and women was held with the aim of analyzing the relationship between direct and indirect victimization, resilience and psychological symptoms. Different scales for measuring variables were used and statistical analysis with chi-square, Student t test, Pearson correlation and multiple linear regression analysis was performed. Gender differences in victimization and psychological symptoms, and significant associations between victimization and symptoms were found. The relationship between victimization and psychological symptoms, is regulated by resilience. It is required to consider this variable in prevention programs aimed at young men and young women exposed to community violence.

Resumo (analítico): No estado de Tamaulipas, conflitos entre grupos de crime organizado têm aumentado os níveis de violência na comunidade. Um estudo analítico observacional, transversal, com 500 estudantes universitários, homens e mulheres, foi realizado com o objetivo de analisar a relação entre a vitimização direta e indireta, resiliência e sintomas psicológicos. Diferentes escalas para as variáveis de medição foram utilizados e análise estatística com qui-quadrado, teste t de Student, correlação de Pearson e análise de regressão linear múltipla foi realizada. Diferenças de gênero na vitimização e sintomas psicológicos e associações significativas entre vitimização e sintomas foram encontrados. A relação entre vitimização e sintomas psicológicos é regulada pela resiliência. É necessário considerar essa variável em programas de prevenção dirigidos a homens e mulheres jovens expostos à violência na comunidade.

Factor structure and internal reliability of an exercise health belief model scale in a Mexican population.

BACKGROUND: Mexico is one of the countries with the highest rates of overweight and obesity around the world, with 68.8% of men and 73% of women reporting both. This is a public health problem since there are several health related consequences of not exercising, like having cardiovascular diseases or some types of cancers. All of these problems can be prevented by promoting exercise, so it is important to evaluate models of health behaviors to achieve this goal. Among several models the Health Belief Model is one of the most studied models to promote health related behaviors. This study validates the first exercise scale based on the Health Belief Model (HBM) in Mexicans with the objective of studying and analyzing this model in Mexico. METHODS: Items for the scale called the Exercise Health Belief Model Scale (EHBMS) were developed by a health research team, then the items were applied to a sample of 746 participants, male and female, from five cities in Mexico. The factor structure of the items was analyzed with an exploratory factor analysis and the internal reliability with Cronbach's alpha. RESULTS: The exploratory factor analysis reported the expected factor structure based in the HBM. The KMO index (0.92) and the Barlett's sphericity test (p < 0.01) indicated an adequate and normally distributed sample. Items had adequate factor loadings, ranging from 0.31 to 0.92, and the internal consistencies of the factors were also acceptable, with alpha values ranging from 0.67 to 0.91. CONCLUSIONS: The EHBMS is a validated scale that can be used to measure exercise based on the HBM in Mexican populations.

ANÁLISIS DE LAS PROPIEDADES PSICOMÉTRICAS DE LA DIABETES EMPOWERMENT SCALE (DES-LF-S) EN ESPAÑOL / ANALYSIS OF THE PSYCHOMETRIC PROPERTIES OF THE SPANISH VERSION OF THE DIABETES EMPOWERMENT SCALE (DES-LF-S)

El propósito de esta investigación fue analizar las propiedades psicométricas de la Escala de Autoeficacia para la Diabetes, Versión Larga en español (DES-LF-S), con 528 adultos con diabetes. El análisis factorial confirmatorio revela que el modelo que mejor se ajusta a los datos en la muestra tiene una estructura de 3 factores y replica la estructura de la escala en su versión original. Los reactivos que componen la escala explicaron el 63.79% de la varianza. La escala demostró niveles satisfactorios de consistencia interna, obteniéndose un alfa de Cronbach de .96; adicionalmente se obtuvieron los percentiles para la interpretación de resultados individuales. Los hallazgos apoyan el uso de la DES-LF-S para evaluar la autoeficacia relacionada con la diabetes en adultos con la enfermedad.

The purpose of this research was to analyze the psychometric properties of Anderson, Funnell, Fitzgerald y Marrero´s Diabetes Empowerment Scale, Long Form-Spanish (DES-LF-S), in 528 diabetic adults. The confirmatory factor analysis stated that the model that best adjust to the data has a tridimensional structure and replicates the structure of the scale in its original version. Items of the scale explained 63.79% of variance. The scale showed satisfactory levels of internal consistency, obtaining a Cronbach´s Alpha of .96; additionally percentiles for the interpretation of individual results were obtained. These findings support the use of DES-LF-S to evaluate self-efficacy related to diabetes in adults.

[Bone mineral density and its association with body composition and metabolic biomarkers of insulin-glucose axis, bone and adipose tissue in women]. / Densidad mineral ósea y su asociación con la composición corporal y biomarcadores metabólicos del eje insulino-glucosa, hueso y tejido adiposo en mujeres.

INTRODUCTION: There are few studies integrating the common causes of osteoporosis and obesity (disorders of body composition). A first step is to investigate correlations between their biological phenotypes to determine their common integrative physiology. OBJECTIVE: To correlate the variation of bone mineral density with phenotypes of body composition and biomarkers of bone physiology, insulin-glucose axis, and adipose tissue. METHODS: Cross-sectional study of 75 women (aged 18-45 years). MEASUREMENTS: Body mass index, waist, fat mass, lean mass (dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry), glucose, insulin, osteocalcin, leptin, tumor necrosis factor alpha. STATISTICAL ANALYSIS: multivariate general linear model, SPSS v.22, p<0.05. RESULTS: Age: 32.08±7.33. Bone mineral content multivariate general linear model 1 with two phenotypes excluded (glucose, insulin): osteocalcin (ß=-0.228, p=0.011), lean mass (ß=0.606, p=0.001) and fat mass (ß=1.237, p=0.001) in 62.0%. The bone mineral density multivariate general linear model 2 with three phenotypes excluded (body mass index, glucose, tumor necrosis factor alpha): insulin (ß=0.250, p=0.024), osteocalcin (ß=-0.362, p=0.001), lean mass (ß=0.512, p=0.001) and fat mass (ß=0.701, p=0.001) in 46.3%. CONCLUSIONS: Results show that body composition with an increased lean mass is beneficial to bone. This study reaffirms the importance of performing regular exercise to prevent muscle loss.

[Caesarean section: History, epidemiology, and ethics to diminish its incidence]. / Operación cesárea. Una visión histórica, epidemiológica y ética para disminuir su incidencia.

Cesarean section has become the most performed surgery and it has been enhanced with the use of antibiotics and improvement in surgical techniques. The aim of this systematic review is to describe and clarify some historical and ethical characteristics of this surgery, pointing out some aspects about its epidemiological behavior, becoming a topic that should be treated globally, giving priority to the prevention and identification of factors that may increase the incidence rates. Today, this "epidemic" reported rates higher than fifty percent, so it is considered a worldwide public health problem. Consequently, in Mexico strategies aimed at its reduction have been implemented. However, sociocultural, economic, medicolegal and biomedical factors are aspects that may difficult this goal. As we decrease the percentage of cesarean section in nulliparous patients, we diminish the number of iterative cesarean and its associated complications. This aim must be achieved through the adherence to the guidelines which promote interest in monitoring and delivery care in health institutions of our country.

La operación cesárea es la cirugía mayor más frecuentemente practicada, y ha sido perfeccionada con el uso de antibióticos y mejores técnicas quirúrgicas. El objetivo de esta revisión sistemática es describir y precisar diversas características históricas y éticas con relación a esta intervención quirúrgica, señalando algunos aspectos inherentes a su comportamiento epidemiológico, siendo este último una problemática de actualidad y de suma importancia que debe tratarse de forma integral, dando prioridad a la prevención e identificación de los factores que hacen posible el aumento en las tasas de incidencia. Hoy en día, esta "epidemia" reporta tasas que superan el cincuenta por ciento, por lo que se ha considerado un problema de salud pública a nivel mundial. Consecuentemente, en México se han implementado estrategias tendentes a su disminución, no obstante, los factores socioculturales, económicos, médico-legales y biomédicos son aspectos que dificultan dicho objetivo. En la proporción en que se disminuya el porcentaje de cesárea en pacientes primigestas, disminuirá secundariamente el número de cesáreas iterativas y sus complicaciones asociadas, meta que debe alcanzarse mediante el apego a las guías que promueven el interés por la vigilancia y atención del parto en las instituciones de salud de nuestro país.

Low level of exposure to pesticides leads to lung dysfunction in occupationally exposed subjects.

Pesticides may contribute to adverse respiratory health effects among farmers and have been considered one causal factor for the rise in asthma prevalence. This cross-sectional study was conducted to evaluate potential respiratory function abnormalities following long-term pesticide exposure by means of a complete pulmonary function testing, including spirometry, lung volumes, and diffusing capacity for carbon monoxide. The study population was comprised by workers from a prominent intensive agriculture area of southern Spain that relied on pesticides for the control of plagues. Eighty-nine pesticide sprayers of plastic greenhouse farming and a control group of 25 nonspraying control farmers from the same area were interviewed by a general practitioner asking about sociodemographic factors, occupational exposure, and clinical symptoms by using a structured questionnaire. Multiple regression analyses showed a relationship of short-term exposure to pesticides (as indicated by a drop in serum cholinesterase > 25% of baseline levels) with reduced forced expired volume in 1 s, and of long-term exposure (as indicated by a cumulative pesticide exposure index) with reduced forced expiratory flow rate. Exposure to bipyridilium-class herbicides was a determinant of a fall in the diffusing capacity of the lungs, and neonicotinoid insecticides showed a relationship with lower pulmonary volumes (total lung capacity, residual volume, and functional residual capacity), suggestive of restrictive lung disease, and with an increased risk of reporting irritative symptoms.

Changes in antioxidant enzymes in humans with long-term exposure to pesticides.

Different pesticides, including organophosphates (OPs), have been reported to induce oxidative stress due to generation of free radicals and alteration in antioxidant defence mechanisms. In this study, a cohort of 81 intensive agriculture workers (pesticide sprayers) was assessed twice during the course of a spraying season for changes in erythrocyte antioxidant enzymes. Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) was used as a reference biomarker. Sprayers presented lower levels of superoxide dismutase (SOD) and glutathione reductase (GR) as compared to controls independently of age, BMI, smoking habit or alcohol consumption. A positive correlation between SOD and AChE was observed at the high exposure period. Those individuals with a decrease in AChE greater than 15% exhibited lower SOD and catalase (CAT) activities at the same period. Glutathione peroxidase (GPx) and glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PDH) remained unaffected in the exposed population. Paraoxonase (PON1) polymorphism influenced erythrocyte CAT and GR, as subjects with the R allele presented lower CAT and higher GR levels. Whether or not the decreased enzyme activities found in this study are linked to the adverse health effects related to chronic pesticide toxicity (in which oxidative damage plays a pathophysiological role, such as cancer or neurodegenerative disorders) is an attractive hypothesis that warrants further investigation.

Influence of exposure to pesticides on serum components and enzyme activities of cytotoxicity among intensive agriculture farmers.

Although the effects of acute pesticide poisoning are well known for the pesticides most currently used, hardly any data exist on health effects after long-term low-dose exposures. Major unresolved issues include the effect of moderate exposure in the absence of poisoning. The increased utilization of pesticides other than organophosphates makes it even more difficult to find associations. In this study a cohort of 106 intensive agriculture workers were assessed twice during the course of a spraying season for changes in serum biochemistry, namely enzymes reflecting cytotoxicity (AST, ALT, LDH, CK, and amino-oxidase) and other biochemical parameters, such as markers of nephrotoxicity (urea, creatinine) and lipid profile (cholesterol and triglycerides). Several criteria for estimating pesticide exposure were used, the most important one being serum cholinesterase depression greater than 25% from baseline to peak exposure. Our results revealed an association of pesticide exposure with changes in AST (increased activity), LDH, and amino-oxidase (decreased activity) as well as with changes in serum creatinine and phosphorus (lower and higher levels, respectively). These results provide support for a very slight impairment of the liver function, but overall these findings are consistent with no clinically significant hepatotoxicity. Intriguingly, paraoxonase-1 R allele was found to be an independent predictor of higher rates of AST and lower rates of amino-oxidase, so that it may play a supporting role as an individual marker of susceptibility on pesticide-induced health effects. In conclusion, different biomarkers might be used to detect early biochemical effects of pesticides before adverse clinical health effects occur.

Changes in erythrocyte enzymes in humans long-term exposed to pesticides: influence of several markers of individual susceptibility.

Changes in erythrocyte delta-aminolevulinic acid dehydratase (ALA-D) have been reported after exposure to different pesticides, including organophosphates and paraquat. In this study, we have determined ALA-D in 135 pesticide applicators (sprayers) from an intensive agriculture setting at two periods with different pesticide exposure. Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) was used as a reference biomarker. The effects of the combined polymorphism of enzymes involved in the detoxification of pesticides (paraoxonase (PON1), benzoylcholinesterase (BChE), and glutathione S-transferase (GSTM1 and GSTT1)) on the level of the target erythrocyte enzymes were also studied as biomarkers of individual susceptibility. Sprayers presented significant lower levels of ALA-D and AChE than controls (41.3% and 14.5%, respectively) at the high exposure period. When all biomarkers of individual susceptibility to pesticides were considered at the same time, the GSTT1 null allele determined higher ALA-D and AChE activities at the period of high exposure to pesticides. PON1 R allele in turn determined lower AChE activity at the low exposure period. Null genotype for both GST subclasses (GSTM1 and GSTT1) was found to be the unique independent predictor of pesticide-related symptomatology. Interestingly, sprayers were consistently underrepresented among carriers of "unfavourable" BChE variants. In conclusion, ALA-D appears to be an important biological indicator of pesticide exposure and PON1 and GSTT1 are relevant determinants of susceptibility to chronic pesticide poisoning.

Effect of long-term exposure to pesticides on plasma esterases from plastic greenhouse workers.

Previous reports in animals considered beta-glucuronidase activity as a novel biomarker of anticholinesterase (organophosphates and carbamates) pesticides exposure. Acid phosphatase activity was also shown to increase after organophosphates exposure. In addition, there is evidence that the paraoxonase status influences sensitivity to specific pesticides. In this study, activities of beta-glucuronidase, acid phosphatase, cholinesterase, and paraoxonase were measured in plasma from plastic greenhouse workers exposed over the long term to different pesticides, including organophosphates and carbamates, in order to evaluate the potential chronic toxicity of pesticides at occupational level. Our results show that activities of paraoxonase and cholinesterase were decreased in applicators of pesticides compared to non-applicators. Likewise, it was found that activities of beta-glucuronidase and acid phosphatase were associated with pesticide exposure in humans, and that both biochemical parameters were related to each other. Interestingly, the paraoxonase B allele (phenotyped in plasma) was associated with a higher risk of inhibition of cholinesterase activity above a 25% level, which supports the hypothesis that paraoxonase phenotypes are associated with susceptibility of humans to anticholinesterase pesticides toxicity.

Paraoxonase activity and genetic polymorphisms in greenhouse workers with long term pesticide exposure.

Serum paraoxonase (PON1) is a high-density lipoprotein (HDL) associated protein, which plays a critical role in the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis, although it was primarily associated with the hydrolysis of organophosphorus compounds. PON1 was initially thought to be independent from physiological or pathological states, although recently some environmental factors have been reported to modulate its activity. In this study, we have investigated the promoter (PON1 -108C/T and -909 C/G) and coding region (PON1 192Q/R and 55L/M) polymorphisms, as well as PON1 activity towards different substrates (paraoxon, phenylacetate and diazoxon) in 102 individuals with long term low dose exposure to pesticides in a plastic greenhouse setting (sprayers), who are probably the group of agricultural workers with the highest exposure to pesticides. PON1 activity towards paraoxon was nonsignificantly decreased (up to 53.5%) in the sprayers subgroup exposed to organophosphates (n = 41) compared with nonsprayers acting as controls (n = 39). None of the genotypes studied was associated significantly with the subgroup of individuals exposed to organophosphates, although differences between sprayers and nonsprayers were observed in the PON1 -909 G/C polymorphism. Among the environmental factors that significantly predicted lower rates of PON1 activity towards paraoxon are, interestingly, the exposure to organophosphates and current smoking. By contrast, the utilization of protective clothing while spraying pesticides inside the greenhouses was positively associated with PON1 activity, very likely by preventing the pesticides from being absorbed. This study suggests that chronic exposure to pesticides might decrease PON1 activity and pinpoints the potential usefulness of monitoring PON1 activity in occupational settings where exposure to organophosphates occurs.