The newly described mecA homologue, mecALGA251, is present in methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus isolates from a diverse range of host species.

OBJECTIVES: A previously unidentified mecA homologue, mecA(LGA251), has recently been described in methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) from humans and dairy cattle. The origin and epidemiology of this novel homologue are unclear. The objective of this study was to provide basic descriptive information of MRSA isolates harbouring mecA(LGA251) from a range of host animal species. METHODS: A number of S. aureus isolates from historical animal isolate collections were chosen for investigation based on their similarity to known mecA(LGA251) MRSA isolates. The presence of mecA(LGA251) was determined using a multiplex PCR and antimicrobial susceptibility testing performed by disc diffusion. RESULTS: MRSA harbouring mecA(LGA251) were found in isolates from a domestic dog, brown rats, a rabbit, a common seal, sheep and a chaffinch. All of the isolates were phenotypically MRSA, although this depended on which test was used; some isolates would be considered susceptible with certain assays. All isolates were susceptible to linezolid, rifampicin, kanamycin, norfloxacin, erythromycin, clindamycin, fusidic acid, tetracycline, trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole and mupirocin. Five multilocus sequence types were represented (2273, 130, 425, 1764 and 1245) and six spa types (t208, t6293, t742, t6594, t7914 and t843). CONCLUSIONS: The discovery of MRSA isolates possessing mecA(LGA251) from a diverse range of host species, including different taxonomic classes, has important implications for the diagnosis of MRSA in these species and our understanding of the epidemiology of this novel mecA homologue.

Use of liquid carbon dioxide for whole-house gassing of poultry and implications for the welfare of the birds.

The use of liquid carbon dioxide (CO(2)) was evaluated as a means of culling a flock of five-week-old pullets in situ. It took five minutes and 20 seconds for sufficient liquid CO(2) to be injected (3.24 tonnes) to achieve the target concentration of 45 per cent CO(2). Although very low ambient temperatures were recorded (below -80°C) during gassing, on the basis of postmortem reports and other data it is inferred that the birds died within minutes of exposure to the gas and before experiencing the extremely low temperatures recorded in the house.

Salmonellosis in garden birds in Scotland, 1995 to 2008: geographic region, Salmonella enterica phage type and bird species.

Salmonellosis was diagnosed in garden birds from 198 incidents in Scotland between September 1995 and August 2008. Salmonellosis was essentially a disease of finches in the north of Scotland, but in the south of Scotland it was also a problem in house sparrows. Almost all of the incidents were caused by Salmonella Typhimurium phage types 40 or 56/variant, but regional variation in phage types was observed. In the north of Scotland, one phage type (DT 40) predominated, but in the south of Scotland two phage types were commonly isolated (DTs 40 and 56/variant, with the latter the more common of the two phage types). This regional difference was statistically significant for salmonellosis in greenfinches, chaffinches and 'other garden birds', but not for house sparrows. Different temporal patterns for different species of bird and different phage types were also observed within regions. These findings suggest that the epidemiology of salmonellosis in garden birds varies depending on the phage type of Salmonella and the species of garden bird, with additional regional differences depending on the wild bird populations and the phage types of Salmonella in circulation. An awareness of these differences will help when formulating guidelines aimed at reducing the impact of salmonellosis in garden birds.

Isolation of different serovars of Salmonella enterica from wild birds in Great Britain between 1995 and 2003.

Postmortem examinations were carried out on the carcases of 779 wild birds. Salmonellosis was a common cause of death in greenfinches (Carduelis chloris), house sparrows (Passer domesticus) and chaffinches (Fringilla coelebs), and was also responsible for the deaths of other birds such as goldfinches (Carduelis carduelis), feral pigeons and different species of gulls. Most cases of salmonellosis in finches occurred between January and March, whereas salmonellosis in house sparrows tended to occur between October and March. Salmonella Typhimurium DT40 and DT56 (variant) predominated in finches and sparrows, DT41 and DT195 were the most common strains isolated from gulls, and DT2 and DT99 were recovered from feral pigeons. These "wild bird" strains of Salmonella made up less than 0.5 per cent of the isolates of Salmonella recovered from cattle, sheep, pigs, chickens or turkeys in Great Britain over the same period, but they made up nearly 3 per cent of the isolates from more extensively reared avian livestock such as gamebirds, ducks and geese.

Further monitoring for Salmonella species and Escherichia coli O86 at a bird table in south-west Scotland.

Pooled faeces collected from a garden bird table were screened for Salmonella species and Escherichia coli O86, two recognised causes of garden bird mortality. Dead birds found at the site were also screened for these organisms, and bird numbers and meteorological data were recorded. In the first year of the study, 48.5 per cent of the samples were positive for Salmonella Typhimurium DT56 (variant), decreasing to 38.9 per cent in the second year and 12.8 per cent in the third year. E. coli O86 was not recovered from any of the 288 samples of pooled faeces tested. S. Typhimurium DT56 (variant) was recovered from the carcases of eight birds found dead at the site, and E. coli O86 was isolated from three carcases. The degree of contamination of the bird table with S. Typhimurium DT56 (variant) was positively correlated with the number of house sparrows observed in the garden, but not with the number of blackbirds, chaffinches or greenfinches.

Marek's disease, candidiasis and megabacteriosis in a flock of chickens (Gallus gallus domesticus) and Japanese quail (Coturnix japonica).

An outbreak of mortality in chickens and Japanese quail sharing the same airspace was investigated. Marek's disease was diagnosed in five of 11 chickens examined, and in 20 of 24 quail; crop candidiasis was found in four of the chickens and in five of the quail, and moderate to large numbers of organisms referred to as megabacteria were observed in eight of the chickens and 16 of the quail. The disease was so severe that almost all of the quail in the flock died or were culled during the following six months. In contrast, only approximately 5 per cent of the chickens died from Marek's disease.

Phylogenetic analysis by 16S rDNA gene sequence comparison of avian taxa of Bisgaard and characterization and description of two new taxa of Pasteurellaceae.

AIMS: Characterization and classification of members of Pasteurellaceae isolated from birds by extended phenotypic characterization and 16S rDNA gene sequence comparison. METHODS AND RESULTS: A total of 95 avian isolates were subjected to extended phenotypic characterization. Thirteen bacterial strains selected from main phenotypic clusters and isolated from parrot, parakeet, budgerigar, partridge, pheasant, chicken, duck, hawk and gull were subsequently characterized by 16S rDNA gene sequencing. Eight of the sequenced strains were classified with six taxa of Bisgaard of which two (34 and 40) have not been published before, and the properties of four others (14, 22, 26 and 32) changed upon the characterization of these new isolates. Of the remaining strains, one was identified as a phenotypic variant in maltose and dextrin of Pasteurella gallinarum another as a trehalose positive variant of taxon 3 of Bisgaard. The remaining three strains sequenced were not closely related to existing taxa of Pasteurellaceae. However, they were found to belong to the Avian cluster with 92-97% 16S rDNA gene sequence similarity. CONCLUSION: The study allowed the classification of bacteria isolated from birds by the integrated use of extended phenotypic characterization and 16S rDNA gene sequence analysis. Only the application of 16S rDNA gene sequencing allows a correct identification of variant strains. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY: The description of new taxa within the bacterial family Pasteurellaceae will subsequently allow additional isolates of these taxa to be identified and improve the diagnosis and epidemiological understanding of bacteria causing disease in birds.

Salmonella enterica subspecies enterica serotype Typhimurium and Escherichia coli O86 in wild birds at two garden sites in south-west Scotland.

Salmonella enterica subspecies enterica serotype Typhimurium and Escherchia coli O86:K61:NM are two bacteria that can cause outbreaks of mortality in garden birds visiting bird tables and other feeding stations. Two sites in south-west Scotland were monitored for the two organisms for 12 months. At site A, large numbers of birds fed throughout the year, and at site B smaller numbers of birds fed only in the winter months. Samples of composite faeces were collected from the feeding stations and screened for the organisms, and any dead birds were also screened. S Typhimurium definitive type (DT) 56 (variant) was found to be endemic at site A, and was recovered from 48 per cent of samples of composite faeces collected from the bird table, from 42 per cent of composite faeces from underneath a hanging feeder, and from 33 per cent of composite faeces from below a roost used by house sparrows; the organism was also isolated from the carcases of six wild birds found dead at the site. In contrast, S Typhimurium (DT41) was recovered only once at site B, from 2 per cent of the composite faeces from below a hanging feeder, and no dead birds were recovered from the site. E coli O86 was not recovered from the faeces collected from either site, but was isolated from a bird that died from trauma at site A.

Pheasant ataxia: a new condition in pheasant poults.

Between 1995 and 1997 a neurological condition in pheasant poults from 24 sites in England and Scotland was investigated. Affected birds showed varying degrees of ataxia and incoordinated movements and, in severe cases, recumbency, but generally remained alert with their heads held upright. The condition characteristically affected poults from seven weeks of age and the incidence on any one site was low. No significant bacteria were isolated consistently from brain tissue. The condition was characterised histologically by a non-suppurative meningoencephalitis, in which lesions were found predominantly in the cerebellum in 61 of 81 samples examined (75.3 per cent). A non-suppurative myelitis was recorded in 16 of 20 spinal cords examined. No lesions were recorded in peripheral neural tissue and lesions were rare in other tissues. The condition appeared not to have been recorded previously in pheasants. A viral aetiology was suspected but Newcastle disease virus was not involved.

Causes of mortality and culling in adult pheasants.

The causes of the deaths or culling of 155 adult pheasants in breeding pens on one site between 1995 and 1997 were investigated. Approximately half the deaths were the result of problems associated with the reproductive tract or trauma, including injuries acquired during fighting or mating. Sinusitis was the commonest infectious cause of mortality or culling, despite medication of the flocks for mycoplasmosis. Marble spleen disease and pheasant coronavirus-associated nephritis, two viral conditions capable of causing high mortality, were diagnosed in a few birds in 1996 and 1997. Histomoniasis (blackhead) contributed to the mortality in 1996. A lymphomatous condition of uncertain aetiology was detected in a small number of birds.

Salmonella pullorum in the common pheasant (Phasianus colchicus).

In 1996, pullorum disease due to Salmonella enterica serovar Gallinarum biovar pullorum (Salmonella pullorum) was diagnosed in pheasants on a gamebird rearing enterprise in south-west Scotland. The gross pathology and bacteriological findings are described, as are the results of screening for S pullorum on the site in 1997. The causal organism was readily isolated from the lung, liver, yolk sac and heart blood on direct culture, but less readily from the digestive tract or by the use of selective media. The bacteria recovered from the pheasants were identified as S pullorum phage type 7, a phage type previously associated with pheasants rather than domestic fowl, and the organisms were most probably introduced to the site by the movement of carrier pheasants.