NPY sensitivity and postsynaptic properties of heterotopic neurons in the MAM model of malformation-associated epilepsy.

Neuronal migration disorders (NMDs) can be associated with neurological dysfunction such as mental retardation, and clusters of disorganized cells (heterotopias) often act as seizure foci in medically intractable partial epilepsies. Methylazoxymethanol (MAM) treatment of pregnant rats results in neuronal heterotopias in offspring, especially in hippocampal area CA1. Although the neurons in dysplastic areas in this model are frequently hyperexcitable, the precise mechanisms controlling excitability remain unclear. Here, we used IR-DIC videomicroscopy and whole cell voltage-clamp techniques to test whether the potent anti-excitatory actions of neuropeptide Y (NPY) affected synaptic excitation of heterotopic neurons. We also compared several synaptic and intrinsic properties of heterotopic, layer 2-3 cortical, and CA1 pyramidal neurons, to further characterize heterotopic cells. NPY powerfully inhibited synaptic excitation onto normal and normotopic CA1 cells but was nearly ineffective on responses evoked in heterotopic cells from stimulation sites within the heterotopia. Glutamatergic synaptic responses on heterotopic cells exhibited a comparatively small, D-2-amino-5-phosphopentanoic acid-sensitive, N-methyl-D-aspartate component. Heterotopic neurons also differed from normal CA1 cells in postsynaptic membrane currents, possessing a prominent inwardly rectifying K(+) current sensitive to Cs(+) and Ba(2+), similar to neocortical layer 2-3 pyramidal cells. CA1 cells instead had a prominent Cs(+)- and 4-(N-ethyl-N-phenylamino)-1,2-dimethyl-6-(methylamino) pyrimidinium chloride-sensitive I(h) and negligible inward rectification, unlike heterotopic cells. Thus heterotopic CA1 cells appear to share numerous physiological similarities with neocortical neurons. The lack of NPY's effects on intra-heterotopic inputs, the small contribution of I(h), and abnormal glutamate receptor function, may all contribute to the lowered threshold for epileptiform activity observed in hippocampal heterotopias and could be important factors in epilepsies associated with NMDs.

An exploration of the history and controversies surrounding MDMA and MDA.

In existence for nearly a century, 3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine (MDA) and 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, "Ecstasy") have gained quite a reputation. Perceived by some as dangerous neurotoxins, and by others as potential psychotherapeutics, these compounds have become a center of controversy among academics and law enforcement officials, and in the process have gained extensive media exposure. The classification of these drugs as illicit, controlled substances in the United States has not prevented their use, and MDMA, or Ecstasy, is currently one of the most popular substances used recreationally in North America. The scheduling of MDMA and MDA has, however, led to the distribution of contaminated, or falsely represented, Ecstasy tablets, and prevented responsible research into the detrimental and therapeutic effects of these drugs. A look at the history of these compounds suggests that they have the potential to be used safely as psychotherapeutic tools, and that the legal status of MDMA and MDA may be worth reconsidering.