Spatial patterns of congruence or mismatch between taxonomic, functional, and phylogenetic diversity and endemism of perennial flora along the aridity gradient of Chile.

Introduction: Understanding the relationships between taxonomic, functional, and phylogenetic diversity and endemism across environmental gradients is essential for elucidating the eco-evolutionary mechanisms that shape local plant communities. Methods: A database was compiled from field surveys, national herbarium records, and virtual records of perennial plant specimens collected in the aridity gradient of northern Chile, between 18 and 32°S. A large-scale dated phylogeny of available perennial plants was used, and 11 functional traits were selected to construct a dendrogram using the Unweighted Pair-Group Method with Arithmetic Mean (UPGMA) method for the species present in our database. We calculated spatial patterns of a-diversity, including taxonomic (TD), functional (FD), and phylogenetic (PD) diversity, as well as weighted (WE), functional (FE), and phylogenetic (PE) endemism. We used multiscale geographically weighted regression (MGWR) to identify spatial congruencies and discrepancies among these dimensions and to test different eco-evolutionary processes. Results: The diversity indices TD, FD and PD showed similar geographic patterns (R2 > 0.93), with lower diversity observed in absolute desert regions. The pattern of weighted endemism (WE) showed a weak association with functional endemism (FE) and phylogenetic endemism (PE) (local R2 < 0.48). The regions with lower FD or PD than expected given the TD (i.e. FDWE and PE>WE), they are found in arid, high Andean and transitional zones, at different altitudes, which would indicate a greater presence of phylogenetic lineages and species with morpho-functional traits related to extreme environmental conditions and transitional biomes (arid-semiarid). Discussion: These spatial discrepancies suggest different eco-evolutionary drivers between the dimensions of diversity and endemism (taxonomic, functional, and phylogenetic). Areas of high diversity and high endemism do not necessarily coincide, and both should be addressed by conservation efforts.

Genetic and phenotypic diversity in 2000 years old maize (Zea mays L.) samples from the Tarapacá region, Atacama Desert, Chile.

The evolution of maize (Zea mays L.) is highly controversial given the discrepancies related to the phenotypic and genetic changes suffered by the species, the incidence of human groups and the times in which these changes occurred. Also, morphological and genetic traits of crops are difficult to evaluate in the absence of fossils macro-botanical remains. In contrast in the Tarapacá region (18-21° S), Atacama Desert of Chile, prehispanic settlements (ca. 2500-400 yr BP) displayed extensive maize agriculture. The presence of archaeological macro-botanical remains of maize provided a unique opportunity to study the evolution of this crop, covering a temporal sequence of at least 2000 years. Thus, in this study, we ask how the morphological and genetic diversity of maize has varied since its introduction during prehispanic times in the Tarapacá region. To answer this, we measured and compared morphological traits of size and shape between archaeological cobs and kernels and 95 ears from landraces. To established genetic diversity eight microsatellite markers (SSR) were analyzed in archaeological and modern kernels. Genetic diversity was estimated by allelic frequency rates, the average number of alleles per locus, observed heterozygosity (Ho) and expected heterozygosity (He). Differences between populations and genetic structure were estimated by fixation index FST and STRUCTURE analysis. Our results indicate significant phenotypic differences and genetic distance between archaeological maize and landraces. This result is suggestive of an introduction of new varieties or drastic selective changes in modern times in Tarapacá. Additionally, archaeological maize shows a low genetic diversity and a progressive increase in the size of ears and kernels. These results suggest a human selection during prehispanic times and establish that prehispanic farmers played an important role in maize development. They also provide new clues for understanding the evolutionary history of maize in hyperarid conditions.

Genetic Patterns of Myrceugenia correifolia, a Rare Species of Fog-Dependent Forests of Mediterranean Chile: Is It a Climatic Relict?

Rare species frequently occur in areas with microclimatic conditions that are atypical for their regions, but that were more common in the past, and that probably have operated as climatic refugia for a long time. Myrceugenia correifolia is a rare arboreal species that grows in deep canyons and hilltops of the Coast Range of north-central Chile between 30° and 35°S. In the northern edge of its distribution M. correifolia grows in small patches of fog-dependent forest surrounding by xeric vegetation. These forest formations are thought to be remnants of an ancient and continuous rainforest that according to some authors became fragmented during aridization of the Neogene (Neogene relict) and to others during warm-dry cycles of the Pleistocene (glacial relicts). Here we asked whether the northernmost populations of M. correifolia are Neogene relicts, glacial relicts, or the result of a recent northward colonization. To answer this question we examined genetic diversity and population divergence of M. correifolia using microsatellite markers, tested various competing population history scenarios with an approximate Bayesian computation (ABC) method, and complemented these data with ecological niche modeling (ENM). We detected three genetic clusters with a distinctive latitudinal pattern (north, center, and south) and high levels of differentiation (FST = 0.36). Demographic inference supported an admixture event 31 kya between two populations that diverged from an ancient population 139 kya. The admixture time coincides with the beginning of a period of wet conditions in north-central Chile that extended from 33 to 19 kya and was preceded by dry and cold conditions. These results suggest that increased precipitation during glacial periods triggered northward expansion of the range of M. correifolia, with subsequent admixture between populations that remained separated during interglacial periods. Accordingly, ENM models showed that suitable habitats for M. correifolia in north-central Chile were larger and less fragmented during the Last Glacial Maximum than at present, suggesting that northernmost populations of this species are glacial relicts.

Development of microsatellite markers using next-generation sequencing for the columnar cactus Echinopsis chiloensis (Cactaceae).

The aim of this study was to develop microsatellite markers as a tool to study population structure, genetic diversity and effective population size of Echinopsis chiloensis, an endemic cactus from arid and semiarid regions of Central Chile. We developed 12 polymorphic microsatellite markers for E. chiloensis using next-generation sequencing and tested them in 60 individuals from six sites, covering all the latitudinal range of this species. The number of alleles per locus ranged from 3 to 8, while the observed (Ho) and expected (He) heterozygosity ranged from 0.0 to 0.80 and from 0.10 to 0.76, respectively. We also detected significant differences between sites, with FST values ranging from 0.05 to 0.29. Microsatellite markers will enable us to estimate genetic diversity and population structure of E. chiloensis in future ecological and phylogeographic studies.

Development and characterization of nine polymorphic microsatellite markers in the Chilean kelp Lessonia nigrescens.

A total of nine microsatellite loci were isolated and characterized in the Chilean kelp Lessonia nigrescens Bory. Using two different enriched libraries, we observed 1-14 alleles per locus in two samples of 21 kelp individuals each. The observed heterozygosities ranged from 0.05 to 0.80 and all loci are in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium for one or both samples. Seventeen samples collected from different sites showed high allele diversity along the species distribution. The variation detected at these markers is currently being used for the study of populations of Lessonia nigrescens at different geographical scales.