Spatiotemporal changes in largemouth bass mercury concentrations from Connecticut waterbodies, 1995-2021.

We evaluated spatiotemporal changes in the mean and variation in largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides) mercury concentrations over three discrete time periods (1995, 2005-2006, and 2019-2021) across 56 Connecticut waterbodies. We detected largemouth bass raw mercury concentrations that exceeded the US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) Fish Tissue Residue Criterion (≥ 0.30 µg g-1 ww) in 75.1%, 63.3%, and 47.7% of all fish sampled during 1995, 2005-2006, and 2019-2021, respectively. Total length (TL)-adjusted largemouth bass mercury concentrations declined across all ecoregions in Connecticut between subsequent sampling periods but increased between 2005-2006 and 2019-2021 in the Northwest Hills/Uplands ecoregion. The coefficient of variation (CV) of largemouth bass TL-adjusted mercury concentrations increased through time, increasing from 25.78% during 1995 to 36.47% during 2019-2021. The probability of a largemouth bass having a raw mercury concentration > 0.30 µg g-1 ww increased with total length (TL), but the TL with a 50% probability varied across ecoregions and periods. The variation in largemouth bass mercury concentrations highlights the roles that changes to individual behaviors, food web structure, lake properties, and legacy mercury may play in shaping broad patterns and trends in mercury consumption risks.

Detection of numerous phycotoxins in young bull sharks (Carcharhinus leucas) collected from an estuary of national significance.

Florida's Indian River Lagoon (IRL) has experienced large-scale, frequent blooms of toxic harmful algae in recent decades. Sentinel, or indicator, species can provide an integrated picture of contaminants in the environment and may be useful to understanding phycotoxin prevalence in the IRL. This study evaluated the presence of phycotoxins in the IRL ecosystem by using the bull shark (Carcharhinus leucas) as a sentinel species. Concentrations of phycotoxins were measured in samples collected from 50 immature bull sharks captured in the IRL between 2018 and 2020. Ultra-performance liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry was used to measure toxins in shark gut contents, plasma, and liver. Analysis of samples (n = 123) demonstrated the presence of multiple phycotoxins (microcystin, nodularin, teleocidin, cylindrospermopsin, domoic acid, okadaic acid, and brevetoxin) in 82 % of sampled bull sharks. However, most detected toxins were in low prevalence (≤25 % of samples, per sample type). This study provides valuable baseline information on presence of multiple phycotoxins in a species occupying a high trophic position in this estuary of national significance.

Cost analysis of self-monitoring blood glucose in nonintensively managed type 2 diabetes.

OBJECTIVES: To compare health care resource utilization (HCRU) and costs between self-monitoring of blood glucose (SMBG) and continuous glucose monitoring (CGM) users in adults with nonintensively managed type 2 diabetes (T2D). STUDY DESIGN: Retrospective analysis of the MarketScan Databases. METHODS: Adults with T2D using SMBG or initiating CGM between January 2018 and March 2019 were eligible for inclusion. Inclusion criteria were (1) 2 consecutive claims for T2D or 1 claim for T2D and a claim for glucose-lowering therapy, (2) at least 1 pharmacy claim for SMBG strips or CGM sensors, and (3) continuous enrollment for 1 year before and after the index date. Individuals with evidence of CGM in the preindex period, pregnancy, use of rapid-acting insulin or glucagon, type 1 diabetes, gestational diabetes, or secondary diabetes at any time during the study period were excluded. SMBG and CGM patients were matched using propensity score, and all-cause HCRU and costs during a 1-year period were compared. RESULTS: A total of 3498 patients were included in each matched cohort. The per-patient per-year (PPPY) all-cause cost was $20,542 in CGM users vs $19,349 in SMBG users (P < .001). The PPPY cost of glucose-lowering medication was $6312 in CGM users vs $5606 in SMBG users (P < .001). No significant differences in the number of emergency department visits or hospitalizations were observed, but CGM users had more all-cause outpatient visits and office visits with an endocrinologist. CONCLUSIONS: In adults with nonintensively managed T2D, SMBG appears to be less costly than CGM and is associated with lower pharmacy costs.

Urinary excretion of estrogenic chemicals following consumption of capsule coffee and French press coffee: A crossover study.

Background: Coffee brewed from capsules contain estrogenic chemicals (ECs) that may harm the reproductive system. However, there are no studies investigating whether consuming capsule coffee causes these ECs to present in urine. Objective: Compare the effects of consuming capsule coffee vs. a plastic-free (French press) method on the appearance of ECs in urine. Methods: Participants (n = 30) were randomized to consume 540 mL of capsule or French press coffee once, then switched and consumed the other coffee after washout. Urine samples were collected prior to consumption, at 6 h and 24 h. Coffee and urine samples were analyzed for nine ECs using ultra-performance liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry: bisphenol A (BPA), bisphenol F (BPF), bisphenol S, di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP), benzophenone, 4-nonylphenol (4-NP), dibutyl phthalate, caprolactam and dimethyl terephthalate. Results: In coffee samples, BPF (French press: 13.9 ng/mL, capsule: 16.1 ng/mL) and DEHP (capsule: 1.12 ng/mL) were present. In 6 h urine samples, the detection frequency for DEHP was 6.7% in capsule and 13.3% in French press coffee. BPF was detected in only one urine sample post-consumption. Conclusion: Consuming capsule coffee did not increase urinary EC exposure compared to consuming French press coffee.

A case of pseudohyperchloraemia caused by sodium nitrate ingestion.

Emergency department presentations of sodium nitrate poisoning are increasing in frequency. Point-of-care blood gas analysis is useful for identifying methaemoglobinaemia and other abnormalities in such patients. Topically applied nitrate is known to positively interfere with chloride measurement in both point-of-care instruments and automated analysers of the clinical chemistry laboratory. In this article, the authors describe a case of pseudohyperchloraemia caused by sodium nitrate, which was consumed orally for the purpose of suicide. Consistent with the established pattern of interference, the ABL800 (Radiometer Medical, Brønshøj Copenhagen) blood gas analyser produced spuriously high chloride results, whilst the Alinity (Abbott Diagnostics, Abbot Park, Illinois) automated analyser resulted in chloride measurements comparable to those of inductively coupled mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). Both instruments, measure chloride with ion-selective electrodes (ISEs). The ABL800 (Radiometer) uses a membrane electrode, which is vulnerable to permeation by lipophilic nitrate ions, whereas the Alinity (Abbott) employs a silver chloride redox electrode system that is resistant to precipitation of silver nitrate due to its relatively high solubility. These mechanistic differences likely explain why nitrate interferes with some point-of-care devices but does not appear to affect the results of automated analysers.

Effectiveness of Gravity and Manual Stress Radiographs and the Use of Lateral Talar Displacement in Determining Ankle Stability of Supination-External Rotation Type Ankle Fractures.

OBJECTIVES: (1) To evaluate adequacy and reproducibility of the gravity and manual stress imaging in the diagnosis of unstable ankle fractures and (2) to evaluate the diagnostic utility of lateral talar displacement ratio (LTDR) derived in relation to the talar body width on ankle stress imaging. DESIGN: Retrospective cohort study. SETTING: Level 1 Trauma Center. PATIENTS: One hundred seventy consecutive patients who presented with supination-external rotation 2 ankle fractures (OTA/AO 44-B2.1) requiring dynamic stress testing. INTERVENTION: Dynamic stress imaging to determine ankle stability. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE: Ankle instability and subsequent need for surgical fixation as determined by dynamic stress imaging. RESULTS: No statistical significant difference was found between the adequacy of gravity stress radiographs and manual stress images in regards to surgical decision-making (P = 0.595). Using manual and gravity stress images, receiver operating characteristic curves were generated for medial clear space (MCS) (area under the curve = 0.793, 0.901) and LTDR (0.849, 0.850), corresponding to thresholds of 10.5% and 10.2% for manual and gravity, respectively. Seventy-three of 105 patients (69.5%) with MCS > 5 mm and 62 of 75 patients (82.7%) with LTDR > 10% were offered surgical intervention. Sixty-two of the 77 patients (80.5%) offered surgery had both MCS > 5 mm and LTDR > 10%. CONCLUSION: This study shows that manual stress radiographs are just as effective as gravity stress radiographs in making an assessment of ankle fracture stability as there was no difference in diagnostic value between gravity and manual stress imaging in regards to surgical decision-making. Use of additional radiographic measurements such as the LTDR can provide additional information in determining stability when MCS is within a clinical gray area. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Diagnostic Level III. See Instructions for Authors for a complete description of levels of evidence.

Estrogenic activity of capsule coffee using the VM7Luc4E2 assay.

Coffee brewed from capsule machines may contain estrogenic chemicals migrated from plastic, but the estrogenic activity of capsule coffee has not been evaluated. This study evaluated the estrogenic activity of capsule coffee using the VM7Luc4E2 estrogen receptor transcriptional activation assay. Estrogenic potentials of six capsule coffee samples were calculated using relative maximum amplitude response of E2 (>15%RME2 indicative of estrogenic activity) and estradiol equivalent factor (EEF). Estrogenic chemical content was determined using ultra-performance liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry. All capsule coffee samples possessed estrogenic activity (48-56%RME2). EEFs were 6-7 orders of magnitude lower than that of E2, (1.2 × 10-7-1.7 × 10-6), indicating substantially weaker estrogenic potencies. Bisphenol A, bisphenol F, benzophenone, 4-nonylphenol, dibutyl phthalate, and dimethyl terephthalate were detected in capsule coffee. Capsule coffee exhibited estrogenic activity in vitro, and its estrogenic chemical content is likely driving its estrogenicity, warranting further investigations to fully understand the degree to which they are related and to predict the estrogenic potential based on the concentration of estrogenic chemicals.

Variation in management of humeral and clavicular shaft fractures amongst fellowship trained orthopedic traumatologists.

BACKGROUND: There exists a wide variety of opinions on the appropriate management of diaphyseal humeral and clavicular fractures amongst orthopedic surgeons. The purpose of this study is to determine if there is a preference amongst orthopedic traumatologists on treatment of diaphyseal humerus and clavicle fractures with respect to various patient populations. METHODS: A 6-question survey was created using Surveymonkey.com and distributed via the Orthopedic Trauma Association (OTA) website to fellowship trained orthopedic surgery traumatologists to survey the preferred management of a simple oblique middle 1/3rd diaphyseal humerus fracture and a middle 1/3rd displaced diaphyseal clavicle fracture in the following 3 clinical settings: a healthy laborer, an older patient with co-morbidities, and if the surgeon themselves sustained the injury. The ratio of operative to non-operative management was calculated for all 6 questions. A chi-square value was performed to determine if the results are clinically significant based on the clinical scenario. RESULTS: There was 56 responses to the survey that were included in the analysis. Overall, there was a statistically significant trend towards surgical management of the surgeon's own diaphyseal humerus fractures (55%) compared to that of healthy patients (41%) and those with medical comorbidities (21%) (p = 0.02) A similar trend was noted for operative management for diaphyseal clavicle fractures by the surgeon on their own fractures (43%) compared to that of healthy patients (38%) and those with medical comorbidities (18%) (p = 0.02). CONCLUSION: While there are an increasing number of relative indications for treatment of diaphyseal humerus shaft and clavicle fractures, the results of this survey indicate that fellow-ship-trained orthopedic trauma surgeons prefer surgical management of simple humerus and clavicular fractures in young, healthy patients as well as in themselves.

Evaluation of estrogenic chemicals in capsule and French press coffee using ultra-performance liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry.

The objective of this study was to examine exposure to estrogenic chemicals (ECs) via capsule coffee. Twenty-two brands of capsule coffee and 15 brands of French press coffee for comparison were brewed, and their contents of ECs were identified and quantified using ultra-performance liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry. Exposure to ECs in coffee were compared to tolerable daily intake guidelines to assess potential hazard to health. Benzophenone was the most frequently detected EC in capsule coffee (mean concentration ± SD: 20.37 ± 47.07 ng/mL, n = 6), followed by bisphenol A (BPA, 0.31 ± 0.71, n = 4), dibutyl phthalate (1.41 ± 3.58, n = 3), 4-nonylphenol (0.67 ± 1.82, n = 3) and bisphenol F (BPF, 0.49 ± 1.54, n = 2). BPA and BPF were each detected in 3 French press coffee samples (0.29 ± 0.58 and 0.85 ± 1.75 ng/mL, respectively). Two French press coffee brands purchased as ground coffee rather than whole bean were positive for ECs (BPA in one and BPF in both). Hazard indexes were below 1.0 for each EC for both coffee types. These results indicate that there is EC contamination in capsule and French press coffee, but the quantities of ECs are low relative to established safety guidelines.

Harmful algal and cyanobacterial toxins in foraging green turtles (Chelonia mydas) in Florida's Big Bend.

Numerous toxin-producing harmful algal (HAB) species occur in Florida's coastal waters. Exposure to these toxins has been shown to have sublethal effects in sea turtles. The objective of this study was to establish concentrations of 10 HAB toxins in plasma samples from green turtles (Chelonia mydas) foraging in Florida's Big Bend. Domoic acid, lyngbyatoxin-A, microcystins, nodularin, and okadaic acid were detected, demonstrating exposure to these HAB toxins, which are also a public health concern.

Parental exposure to Deepwater Horizon oil in different environmental scenarios alters development of sheepshead minnow (Cyprinodon variegatus) offspring.

The explosion of the Deepwater Horizon (DWH) oil exploration platform on April 20, 2010 began a catastrophic leak of approximately 640 million liters crude oil into the northern Gulf of Mexico (GOM), affecting more than 2100 km of coastline, including wetlands and estuaries that provide habitat and nursery for many aquatic species. Estuaries of the GOM are dynamic environments, with constant fluctuations in salinity and dissolved oxygen, including large hypoxic zones during summer months. Spawning fish in northern GOM estuaries following the DWH incident were at significant risk of oil exposure, and adverse environmental conditions at the time of exposure, such as hypoxia and low salinity, could have exacerbated developmental effects in the offspring. The present study investigated the effects of F0 parental oil exposure in different environmental scenarios on development of F1 sheepshead minnow (SHM) offspring. Adult SHM were exposed to the high-energy water accommodated fraction (HEWAF) of crude oil in three environmental scenarios: normoxic (NORM), hypoxic (HYP), and hypoxic with low salinity (HYP-LS). Parental HEWAF exposure in the NORM scenario resulted in developmental effects in F1 offspring, including altered heart rate, decreased length at hatch, and impaired prey capture. Co-exposure of F0 SHM to HEWAF and adverse environmental conditions altered HEWAF effects on F1 heart rate, hatch rate, prey capture, and survival. Time to hatch was not significantly impacted by parental HEWAF in any environmental scenario. The present study demonstrates that parental exposure to HEWAF results in developmental changes in F1 embryos, and co-exposure to adverse environmental conditions altered the effects for several developmental endpoints. These data suggest that SHM exposed to oil in estuaries experiencing hypoxia or low salinity may produce offspring with worsened outcomes. These developmental effects, in addition to previously reported reproductive effects in adult fish, could lead to long-term population level impacts for SHM.

Combined effects of salinity, temperature, hypoxia, and Deepwater Horizon oil on Fundulus grandis larvae.

Oil spills have polluted the marine environment for decades and continue to be a major source of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) to marine ecosystems around the globe, for example during the 2010 Deepwater Horizon spill. Although the toxicity of PAHs to fish has been well studied, their effects combined with abiotic stressors are poorly understood. The goal of this study was to describe the combined impacts of crude oil and environmental stressors on fish larvae, a sensitive life stage. Gulf killifish (Fundulus grandis) larvae (<24 h post-hatch) were exposed for 48 h to high energy water accommodated fractions (HEWAF; total PAHs 0-125 ppb) of Macondo oil from the Deepwater Horizon spill under different combinations of environmental conditions (dissolved oxygen 2, 6 ppm; temperature 20, 25, 30 °C; salinity 3, 10, 30 ppt). Even under optimal environmental conditions (25 °C, 10 ppt, 6 ppm) larval survival and development were negatively affected by PAHs, starting with the lowest concentration tested (∼15 ppb). Hypoxia and high temperature each increased the adverse effects of HEWAF on development and mortality. In contrast, salinity had little effect on any of the endpoints measured. Importantly, expression of the detoxifying gene cyp1a was highly induced in PAH-exposed larvae under normoxic conditions, but not under hypoxic conditions, potentially explaining the enhanced toxicity observed under hypoxia. This work highlights the importance of considering how suboptimal environmental conditions can exacerbate the effects of pollution on fish early life stages.

Hypoxia and reduced salinity exacerbate the effects of oil exposure on sheepshead minnow (Cyprinodon variegatus) reproduction.

Estuaries of the northern Gulf of Mexico are dynamic environments, with fluctuations in salinity and dissolved oxygen, including areas of seasonal hypoxia. Fish that reside and reproduce in these estuaries, including sheepshead minnow (Cyprinodon variegatus; SHM), were at significant risk of oil exposure following the Deepwater Horizon oil spill. It is poorly understood how differences in environmental conditions during oil exposure impact its toxicity. The present study investigated the effects of crude oil high-energy water accommodated fraction (HEWAF) on SHM reproduction in three environmental scenarios (normoxic, hypoxic, and hypoxic with low salinity) to determine if differences in salinity (brackish vs low salinity) and dissolved oxygen (normoxia vs hypoxia) could exacerbate the effects of HEWAF-derived polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). We observed that HEWAF exposure significantly increased liver somatic index of SHM compared to control, but this effect was not exacerbated by hypoxia or low salinity. HEWAF exposure also significantly decreased egg production and egg fertilization rate, but only in the hypoxic and hypoxic with low salinity scenarios. A significant correlation existed between body burdens of PAHs and reproductive endpoints, providing substantial evidence that oil exposure reduced reproductive capacity in SHM, across a range of environmental conditions. These data suggest that oil spill risk assessments that fail to consider other environmental stressors (i.e. hypoxia and salinity) may be underestimating risk.

A whale of a tale: A One Environmental Health approach to study metal pollution in the Sea of Cortez.

Marine metal pollution is an emerging concern for human, animal, and ecosystem health. We considered metal pollution in the Sea of Cortez, which is a relatively isolated sea rich in biodiversity. Here there are potentially significant anthropogenic inputs of pollution from agriculture and metal mining. We considered the levels of 23 heavy metals and selenium in seven distinct cetacean species found in the area. Our efforts considered two different periods of time: 1999 and 2016/17. We considered the metal levels in relation to (1) all species together across years, (2) differences between suborders Odontoceti and Mysticeti, (3) each species individually across years, and (4) gender differences for each of these comparisons. We further compared metal levels found in sperm whale skin samples collected during these voyages to a previous voyage in 1999, to assess changes in metal levels over a longer timescale. The metals Mg, Fe, Al, and Zn were found at the highest concentrations across all species and all years. For sperm whales, we observed decreased metal levels from 1999 to 2016/2017, except for iron (Fe), nickel (Ni), and chromium (Cr), which either increased or did not change during this time period. These results indicate a recent change in the metal input to the Sea of Cortez, which may indicate a decreased concern for human, animal, and ecosystem health for some metals, but raises concern for the genotoxic metals Cr and Ni. This work was supported by NIEHS grant ES016893 (J.P.W.) and numerous donors to the Wise Laboratory.

Effect of initial emergency room imaging choice on time to hip reduction and repeat imaging.

OBJECTIVES: Hip dislocations are highly morbid injuries necessitating prompt reduction and post-reduction assessment for fracture and incarcerated fragments. Recent literature has questioned the need for initial pelvic radiographs for acute trauma patients, resulting in computed tomography (CT) scans as the initial evaluation. This study investigates the relationship between choice of pre-reduction imaging and treatment of acute hip dislocations. DESIGN: Retrospective Case-Control. SETTING: Single Academic Level I Trauma Center. METHODS: All acute hip dislocations from 2011 to 2016 were reviewed. Exclusion criteria were diagnosis of dislocation at another facility, death prior to reduction, emergent surgical or ICU intervention, and periprosthetic dislocation. Patients were grouped by those with only a radiograph prior to reduction, Group I, versus those with a pre-reduction CT scan, Group II. The primary outcomes were time to reduction and the acquisition of a second CT scan. RESULTS: Of the 123 hip dislocations identified, 35 patients were excluded, mostly for transfer with a known dislocation. Group I included 29 patients and Group II included 59 patients. The mean time to reduction was 74 min in Group I and 129 min in Group II for a difference of 55 min (p < 0.001). The rate of repeat CT scan was 0 in Group I versus 48 (81%) in Group II (p < 0.001). CONCLUSION: Initial trauma pelvic radiography prior to CT is still important in the setting of suspected hip pathology to decrease time to hip reduction and unnecessary radiation exposure. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Prognostic Level III.

Metal Levels in Whales from the Gulf of Maine: A One Environmental Health approach.

One Environmental Health has emerged as an important area of research that considers the interconnectedness of human, animal and ecosystem health with a focus on toxicology. The great whales in the Gulf of Maine are important species for ecosystem health, for the economies of the Eastern seaboard of the United States, and as sentinels for human health. The Gulf of Maine is an area with heavy coastal development, industry, and marine traffic, all of which contribute chronic exposures to environmental chemicals that can bioaccumulate in tissues and may gradually diminish an individual whale's or a population's fitness. We biopsied whales for three seasons (2010-2012) and measured the levels of 25 metals and selenium in skin biopsies collected from three species: humpback whales (Megaptera novaeangliae), fin whales (Balaenoptera physalus), and a minke whale (Balaenoptera acutorostrata). We established baseline levels for humpback and fin whales. Comparisons with similar species from other regions indicate humpback whales have elevated levels of aluminum, chromium, iron, magnesium, nickel and zinc. Contextualizing the data with a One Environmental Health approach finds these levels to be of potential concern for whale health. While much remains to understand what threats these metal levels may pose to the fitness and survival of these whale populations, these data serve as a useful and pertinent start to understanding the threat of pollution.

Transgenerational effects of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon exposure on sheepshead minnows (Cyprinodon variegatus).

The Deepwater Horizon oil spill resulted in the release of over 640 million L of crude oil into the Gulf of Mexico, affecting over 2000 km of shoreline, including estuaries that serve as important habitats and nurseries for aquatic species. Cyprinodon variegatus (sheepshead minnow) are small-bodied fish that inhabit northern Gulf of Mexico estuaries, are easily adaptable to laboratory conditions, and are commonly used in toxicological assessment studies. The purpose of the present study was to determine the somatic, reproductive, and developmental effects of an environmentally relevant polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) mixture, the oil high-energy water accommodated fraction (HEWAF), on experimentally exposed sheepshead minnow (F0 ) as well as 2 generations of offspring (F1 and F2 ) without additional exposure. The F0 generation exposed to HEWAF had increased liver somatic indices, altered egg production, and decreased fertilization. Several developmental endpoints in the F1 were altered by F0 HEWAF exposure. As adults, low HEWAF-exposed F1 females demonstrated decreased weight and length. Both the F1 and F2 generations derived from high HEWAF-exposed F0 had deficits in prey capture compared to control F1 and F2 , respectively. Correlations between endpoints and tissue PAHs provide evidence that the physiological effects observed were associated with hydrocarbon exposure. These data demonstrate that PAHs were capable of causing physiological changes in exposed adult sheepshead minnow and transgenerational effects in unexposed offspring, both of which could have population-level consequences. Environ Toxicol Chem 2019;38:638-649. © 2018 SETAC.

Comparative toxicity of Corexit® 9500, oil, and a Corexit®/oil mixture on the eastern oyster, Crassostrea virginica (Gmelin).

Given their particle feeding behavior, sessile nature, and abundance in coastal zones, bivalves are at significant risk for exposure to oil and oil dispersant following environmental disasters like the Deepwater Horizon oil spill. However, the effects of oil combined with oil dispersants on the health of oysters are not well studied. Therefore, eastern oysters (Crassostrea virginica) were exposed in vivo to Corexit® 9500, crude oil (high-energy water accommodated fraction; HEWAF), and a Corexit®/oil mixture (chemically-enhanced water accommodated fraction; CEWAF) to evaluate potential toxic effects on immunological (phagocytosis and respiratory burst), physiological (feeding rate), and histological endpoints. Phagocytosis was significantly increased following CEWAF exposure only. Respiratory burst was significantly decreased following Corexit® exposure, but significantly increased following exposure to the highest concentration of CEWAF. Oyster feeding rates were significantly decreased following exposure to Corexit®, HEWAF, and CEWAF, and were most sensitive to CEWAF exposure. These modulations of important immunological and physiological functions could result in serious health outcomes for oysters, such as increased parasitism and decreased growth. Our experiments showed that subtle, sub-lethal effects occurred following acute in vivo exposure to Corexit®, HEWAF, and CEWAF, though oysters were not equally sensitive to the three components. Data from this study can be used for more accurate risk assessment concerning the impact of oil and Corexit® on the health of oysters.