Sigma receptor 1 activation attenuates release of inflammatory cytokines MIP1γ, MIP2, MIP3α, and IL12 (p40/p70) by retinal Müller glial cells.

The high-affinity sigma receptor 1 (σR1) ligand (+)-pentazocine ((+)-PTZ) affords profound retinal neuroprotection in vitro and in vivo by a yet-unknown mechanism. A common feature of retinal disease is Müller cell reactive gliosis, which includes cytokine release. Here, we investigated whether lipopolysaccharide (LPS) stimulates cytokine release by primary mouse Müller cells and whether (+)-PTZ alters release. Using a highly sensitive inflammatory antibody array we observed significant release of macrophage inflammatory proteins (MIP1γ, MIP2, MIP3α) and interleukin-12 (IL12 (p40/p70)) in LPS-treated cells compared to controls, and a significant decrease in secretion upon (+)-PTZ treatment. Müller cells from σR1 knockout mice demonstrated increased MIP1γ, MIP2, MIP3α and IL12 (p40/p70) secretion when exposed to LPS compared to LPS-stimulated WT cells. We investigated whether cytokine secretion was accompanied by cytosolic-to-nuclear NFκB translocation and whether endothelial cell adhesion/migration was altered by released cytokines. Cells exposed to LPS demonstrated increased NFκB nuclear location, which was reduced significantly in (+)-PTZ-treated cells. Media conditioned by LPS-stimulated-Müller cells induced leukocyte-endothelial cell adhesion and endothelial cell migration, which was attenuated by (+)-PTZ treatment. The findings suggest that release of certain inflammatory cytokines by Müller cells can be attenuated by σR1 ligands providing insights into the retinal neuroprotective role of this receptor.

Homocysteine-mediated modulation of mitochondrial dynamics in retinal ganglion cells.

PURPOSE: To evaluate the effect of excess homocysteine on the regulation of retinal ganglion cell mitochondrial dynamics. METHODS: Mice deficient in cystathionine-ß-synthase (cbs) were used as a model of hyperhomocysteinemia. Gene and protein expression analyses of Opa1 and Fis1 were performed on cbs⁺/⁻ neural retinas. Mitochondria within retinal ganglion cell axons underwent systematic ultrastructural analysis to measure area, length, width, and the distance between the mitochondria and the axon wall. Primary mouse ganglion cells were cultured, treated with homocysteine, and assessed for levels of Opa1 and Fis1 protein, the number of mitochondria per length of neurite, and levels of cleaved caspase-3. RESULTS: Opa1 and Fis1 protein levels in cbs⁺/⁻ neural retinas were elevated to 191.00% ± 26.40% and 226.20% ± 4.57%, respectively, compared with wild-type. Mitochondria of cbs⁺/⁻ retinas were smaller in all parameters studied, including area (0.32 ± 0.01 µm² vs. 0.42 ± 0.02 µm²), compared with wild-type. Primary ganglion cells treated with homocysteine had elevations in Opa1 and Fis1 proteins, a significantly higher number of mitochondria per length of neurite (0.1781 ± 0.017 vs. 0.1156 ± 0.012), and significantly higher levels of cleaved caspase-3 compared with control. CONCLUSIONS: This study provides the first evidence that homocysteine-induced ganglion cell loss involves the dysregulation of mitochondrial dynamics, both in vivo and in vitro. The present data suggest increased mitochondrial fission as a novel mechanism of homocysteine toxicity to neurons. Of particular relevance are glaucoma and Alzheimer's disease, neurodegenerative diseases that are associated with hyperhomocysteinemia and, more recently, have implicated increased mitochondrial fission in their pathogeneses.