Biomechanics associated with tibial stress fracture in runners: A systematic review and meta-analysis.

BACKGROUND: Tibial stress fracture (TSF) is an overuse running injury with a long recovery period. While many running studies refer to biomechanical risk factors for TSF, only a few have compared biomechanics in runners with TSF to controls. The aim of this systematic review and meta-analysis was to evaluate biomechanics in runners with TSF compared to controls. METHODS: Electronic databases PubMed, Web of Science, SPORTDiscus, Scopus, Cochrane, and CINAHL were searched. Risk of bias was assessed and meta-analysis conducted for variables reported in 3 or more studies. RESULTS: The search retrieved 359 unique records, but only the 14 that compared runners with TSF to controls were included in the review. Most studies were retrospective, 2 were prospective, and most had a small sample size (5-30 per group). Many variables were not significantly different between groups. Meta-analysis of peak impact, active, and braking ground reaction forces found no significant differences between groups. Individual studies found larger tibial peak anterior tensile stress, peak posterior compressive stress, peak axial acceleration, peak rearfoot eversion, and hip adduction in the TSF group. CONCLUSION: Meta-analysis indicated that discrete ground reaction force variables were not statistically significantly different in runners with TSF compared to controls. In individual included studies, many biomechanical variables were not statistically significantly different between groups. However, many were reported by only a single study, and sample sizes were small. We encourage additional studies with larger sample sizes of runners with TSF and controls and adequate statistical power to confirm or refute these findings.

Posterior fall-recovery training applied to individuals with chronic stroke: A single-group intervention study.

BACKGROUND: To assess the effects of the initial stepping limb on posterior fall recovery in individuals with chronic stroke, as well as to determine the benefits of fall-recovery training on these outcomes. METHODS: This was a single-group intervention study of 13 individuals with chronic stroke. Participants performed up to six training sessions, each including progressively challenging, treadmill-induced perturbations from a standing position. Progressions focused on initial steps with the paretic or non-paretic limb. The highest perturbation level achieved, the proportion of successful recoveries, step and trunk kinematics, as well as stance-limb muscle activation about the ankle were compared between the initial stepping limbs in the first session. Limb-specific outcomes were also compared between the first and last training sessions. FINDINGS: In the first session, initial steps with the non-paretic limb were associated with a higher proportion of success and larger perturbations than steps with the paretic limb (p = 0.02, Cohen's d = 0.8). Paretic-limb steps were wider relative to the center of mass (CoM; p = 0.01, d = 1.3), likely due to an initial standing position with the CoM closer to the non-paretic limb (p = 0.01, d = 1.4). In the last training session, participants recovered from a higher proportion of perturbations and advanced to larger perturbations (p < 0.05, d > 0.6). There were no notable changes in kinematic or electromyography variables with training (p > 0.07, d < 0.5). INTERPRETATION: The skill of posterior stepping in response to a perturbation can be improved with practice in those with chronic stroke, we were not able to identify consistent underlying kinematic mechanisms behind this adaptation.

The construct and concurrent validity of brief standing sway assessments in children with and without cerebral palsy.

BACKGROUND: Standing postural sway is often quantified from center of pressure trajectories. During assessments of longer durations, children may fidget, thus limiting the feasibility and validity of sway recordings. RESEARCH QUESTION: Do postural sway sample durations less than 30 s maintain construct and concurrent validity? METHODS: In this case-control, observational study, we measured postural sway in 41 children (age 5-12 years, 23 typically developing (TD); 18 with spastic cerebral palsy (CP), 13 diplegic and 5 hemiplegic, 11 GMFCS level I and 7 level II) for 30-second eyes-opened and eyes-closed conditions. From a single recording, 5-second incremental durations of 5-30 s were considered in this analysis. We quantified anteroposterior, mediolateral, and transverse-plane sway using seven time-domain variables: root-mean-square error, total excursion, mean frequency, mean distance, sway area, and 95 % confidence circle and ellipse areas. Variables were calculated in eyes-opened and eyes-closed conditions, as well as the ratio of the two. Construct validity was evaluated by the persistence of large effect sizes (Glass's Δ ≥ 0.80) between CP and TD participants at shorter durations than 30 s. Concurrent validity was evaluated by the correlations of shorter duration measures to the 30 s measure. RESULTS: Seven sway measures had large between-group effects (Glass's Δ ≥ 1.02) for the 30 s measure that persisted (Glass's Δ ≥ 0.81) at shorter durations (5-25 s) and also maintained concurrent validity (r ≥ 0.83). Six of these seven measures were taken in the eyes-closed condition, and all seven measures were in the mediolateral direction or transverse plane. SIGNIFICANCE: Our analysis suggests that sway durations less than 30 s can uphold construct and concurrent validity. These measures were primarily in the eyes-closed conditions and mediolateral direction. These results are a promising indicator that shorter-duration sway measures may be of utility when fidgeting prevents longer recordings.

Anteroposterior balance reactions in children with spastic cerebral palsy.

AIM: To compare anterior and posterior standing balance reactions, as measured by single-stepping thresholds, in children with and without spastic cerebral palsy (CP). METHOD: Seventeen ambulatory children with spastic CP (eight males, nine females) and 28 typically developing children (13 males, 15 females; age range 5-12y, mean [SD] 9y 2mo [2y 3mo]), were included in this cross-sectional, observational study. Balance reaction skill was quantified as anterior and posterior single-stepping thresholds, or the treadmill-induced perturbations that consistently elicited a step in that direction. In order to understand the underlying mechanisms of between-group differences in stepping thresholds, dynamic stability was quantified using the minimum margin of stability. Ankle muscle activation latency, magnitude, and co-contraction were assessed with surface electromyography. RESULTS: We observed an age and group interaction for anterior thresholds (p=0.001, partial η2 =0.24). At older (≈11y; p<0.001, partial η2 =0.48), but not younger (≈7y; p=0.33, partial η2 =0.02) ages, typically developing children had larger anterior thresholds than those with CP. In response to near-threshold anterior perturbations, older typically developing children recovered from more instability than their peers with CP (p=0.004, partial η2 =0.18). Older children had no between-group differences in ankle muscle activity. No between-group differences were observed in posterior thresholds. INTERPRETATION: The effects of CP on balance reactions are age- and direction-specific. Older typically developing children are more able or willing to withhold a step when unstable. WHAT THIS PAPER ADDS: Children with spastic cerebral palsy have age- and direction-specific balance-reaction impairments. Lower anterior stepping thresholds were observed in older, but not younger children. Older typically developing children withheld a forward step at higher levels of instability. No between-group differences were seen in posterior stepping thresholds.

Brain Stiffness Relates to Dynamic Balance Reactions in Children With Cerebral Palsy.

Cerebral palsy is a neurodevelopmental movement disorder that affects coordination and balance. Therapeutic treatments for balance deficiencies in this population primarily focus on the musculoskeletal system, whereas the neural basis of balance impairment is often overlooked. Magnetic resonance elastography (MRE) is an emerging technique that has the ability to sensitively assess microstructural brain health through in vivo measurements of neural tissue stiffness. Using magnetic resonance elastography, we have previously measured significantly softer grey matter in children with cerebral palsy as compared with typically developing children. To further allow magnetic resonance elastography to be a clinically useful tool in rehabilitation, we aim to understand how brain stiffness in children with cerebral palsy is related to dynamic balance reaction performance as measured through anterior and posterior single-stepping thresholds, defined as the standing perturbation magnitudes that elicit anterior or posterior recovery steps. We found that global brain stiffness is significantly correlated with posterior stepping thresholds (P = .024) such that higher brain stiffness was related to better balance recovery. We further identified specific regions of the brain where stiffness was correlated with stepping thresholds, including the precentral and postcentral gyri, the precuneus and cuneus, and the superior temporal gyrus. Identifying brain regions affected in cerebral palsy and related to balance impairment can help inform rehabilitation strategies targeting neuroplasticity to improve motor function.

Anterior fall-recovery training applied to individuals with chronic stroke.

BACKGROUND: To study the effects of the initial stepping limb on anterior fall-recovery performance and kinematics, as well as to determine the benefits of fall-recovery training on those outcomes in individuals with chronic stroke. METHODS: Single-group intervention of 15 individuals with chronic stroke who performed up to six sessions of fall-recovery training. Each session consisted of two progressions of treadmill-induced perturbations to induce anterior falls from a standing position. Progressions focused on initial steps with the paretic or non-paretic limb. Fall-recovery performance (the highest disturbance level achieved and the proportion of successful recoveries), as well as step and trunk kinematics were compared between the initial stepping limbs on the first session. Limb-specific outcomes were also compared between the first and last training sessions. FINDINGS: There were no between-limb differences in fall-recovery performance in the first session. With training, participants successfully recovered from a higher proportion of falls (p's = 0.01, Cohen's d's > 0.7) and progressed to larger perturbation magnitudes (p's < 0.06, d's > 0.5). Initial steps with the paretic limb were wider and shorter relative to the center of mass (p's < 0.06, d's > 0.5). With training, initial paretic-limb steps became longer relative to the CoM (p = 0.03, d = 0.7). Trunk forward rotation was reduced when first stepping with the non-paretic limb (p = 0.03, d = 0.6). INTERPRETATION: The initial stepping limb affects relevant step kinematics during anterior fall recovery. Fall-recovery training improved performance and select kinematic outcomes in individuals with chronic stroke.

The cross-sectional relationships between age, standing static balance, and standing dynamic balance reactions in typically developing children.

BACKGROUND: Static balance performance is a common metric for evaluating the development of postural control in children. Less is known about the potentially independent development of dynamic balance performance. RESEARCH QUESTION: How does age relate to static (i.e. postural sway) and dynamic (i.e. stepping thresholds) standing balance performance, and what is the relationship between postural sway and stepping thresholds? METHODS: Twenty-six typically developing children (12 males, 14 females; 5-12 years of age) were recruited for this cross-sectional study. Static balance performance was quantified as the total path length during a postural sway assessment using a force platform with conditions of eyes open and eyes closed. Dynamic balance performance was quantified using a single-stepping threshold assessment, whereby participants attempted to prevent a step in response to treadmill-induced perturbations in the anterior and posterior directions. Relationships between age and body-size scaled measures of static and dynamic balance performance were assessed using Spearman rank correlations. RESULTS: There was a weak correlation between age and postural sway (|rs| < 0.10, p >  0.68), but a moderate-to-strong correlation between age and single-stepping thresholds (rs > 0.68, p < 0.001). A weak correlation was found between postural sway and single-stepping thresholds (|rs| < 0.20, p >  0.39). SIGNIFICANCE: Dynamic, but not static standing balance performance, may improve with typical development between the ages of 5 and 12 years. Static and dynamic balance should be considered as unique constructs when assessed in children.

Dynamic stability during walking in children with and without cerebral palsy.

BACKGROUND: Cerebral palsy (CP) is associated with a high risk of falling during walking. Many gait abnormalities associated with CP likely alter foot placement and center of mass (CoM) movement in a way that affects anterior or lateral dynamic stability, in turn influencing fall risk. RESEARCH QUESTION: Do children with CP demonstrate altered anterior or lateral dynamic stability compared to typically-developing (TD) children? METHODS: In this case-control, observational study, we measured gait kinematics of two groups of children (15 CP, 11 GMFCS level I, 4 GMFCS level II; 14 TD; age 5-12) in walking conditions of a preferred speed, a fast speed, and a preferred speed while completing a cognitive task. For dominant and non-dominant limbs, the margin of stability (MoS), a spatial measure of dynamic stability, was calculated as the distance between the edge of the base of support and the CoM position after accounting for scaled velocity. Statistical comparisons of were made using mixed factorial ANOVAs. Post hoc comparisons were Sidak adjusted. RESULTS: The anterior MoS before foot strike and at mid-swing differed between each condition but not between groups. Based on the minimum lateral MoS, children with CP had more stability when bearing weight on their non-dominant limb compared to TD children. These differences were not apparent when on the dominant limb. SIGNIFICANCE: This high-functioning group of children with CP exhibited a more conservative lateral stability strategy during walking when bearing weight with the non-dominant limb. This strategy may be protective against lateral falls. We observed no between-group differences in anterior stability. Because CP has been previously associated with impaired anterior balance reactions, and there was no observed compensation in anterior gait stability, this lack of group differences could contribute to a higher risk of falling in that direction.

The contribution of counter-rotation movements during fall recovery: A validation study.

Three mechanisms of maintaining standing stability include M1 - moving the COP within the base of support, M2 - segment counter-rotation, and M3 - applying an external force. To date, the contributions of these mechanisms have not been quantified for the response to an external postural disturbance. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the construct validity of measures that quantify the M2 contribution to anteroposterior fall recovery. We evaluated the whole-body rotation contribution, as well as a measure specific to arm motion (MARMS). With segment counter-rotation as the main focus of this study, we examined standing feet-in-place responses to treadmill-induced falls. The treatment validity of our measures was assessed by comparing unconstrained responses to those with constrained arm motion. The convergent validity of our measures was assessed by correlating peak shoulder flexion and extension velocities with counter-rotation contributions. Eleven unimpaired participants responded to anteroposterior belt accelerations from a treadmill, and the M2 and MARMS contributions were quantified from three-dimensional segment motion. The treatment validity of these measures was partially supported. Constraining the arms reduced M2 for anterior, but not posterior falls. Conversely, MARMS was reduced for posterior, but not anterior falls. Convergent validity was supported for MARMS (r = 0.64-0.78), but not M2 (r = -0.40 to -0.15). These results support the use of MARMS over M2 when interested in the role of arm motion. Given that arm constraints did not change the contribution of MARMS during a forward fall, unimpaired participants may not necessarily rely on arm motion as part of their recovery strategy in this context.