Toward better monitoring of human noroviruses and F-specific RNA bacteriophages in aquatic environments using bivalve mollusks and passive samplers: A case study.

Monitoring pathogenic enteric viruses in continental and marine water bodies is essential to control the viral contamination of human populations. Human Noroviruses (NoV) are the main enteric viruses present in surface waters and foodstuff. In a context of global change, it is currently a challenge to improve the management of viral pollutions in aquatic environments and thereby limit the contamination of vulnerable water bodies or foodstuffs. The aim of this study is to evaluate the potential of specific accumulation systems for improving the detection of NoV in water bodies, compared to direct water analyses. Passive samplers (Zetapor filters) and three species of bivalve molluscan shellfish (BMS) (Dreissena polymorpha, Mytilus edulis and Crassostreas gigas) were used as accumulation systems to determine their performance in monitoring continental and marine waters for viruses. F-specific RNA bacteriophages (FRNAPH) were also analyzed since they are described as indicators of NoV hazard in many studies. During a one-year study in a specific area frequently affected by fecal pollution, twelve campaigns of exposure of passive samplers and BMS in continental and coastal waters were conducted. Using suitable methods, NoV (genome) and FRNAPH (infectious and genome) were detected in these accumulation systems and in water at the same time points to determine the frequency of detection but also to gain a better understanding of viral pollution in this area. The reliability of FRNAPH as a NoV indicator was also investigated. Our results clearly showed that BMS were significantly better than passive samplers and direct water analyses for monitoring NoV and FRNAPH contamination in water bodies. A dilution of viral pollution between the continental and the coastal area was observed and can be explained by the distance from the source of the pollution. Viral pollution is clearly greater during the winter period, and stakeholders should take this into consideration in their attempts to limit the contamination of food and water. A significant correlation was once again shown between NoV and FRNAPH genomes in BMS, confirming the reliability of FRNAPH as a NoV indicator. Moreover, a strong correlation was observed between NoV genomes and infectious FRNAPH, suggesting recent viral pollution since infectious particles had not been inactivated at sufficient levels in the environment. More generally, this study shows the value of using BMS as an active method for improving knowledge on the behavior of viral contamination in water bodies, the ranking of the contamination sources, and the vulnerability of downstream water bodies.

[Standardization of larval development of the sea urchin, Paracentrotus lividus, as tool for the assessment sea water quality]. / Standardisation du développement larvaire de l'oursin, Paracentrotus lividus, pour l'évaluation de la qualité d'une eau de mer.

All stages of development of the sea urchin are of interest in ecotoxicology; the largest number of prior works concerns studies on gametes. Previous studies indicated that the use of sea urchin larvae was difficult because of the need to obtain the parent generations and good quality gametes. Progress in sea urchin culture has allowed one to standardize the method. The proposed technique is based on an evaluation of the number of non-developing fertilized eggs, on the frequency of malformations, and on the length of the larvae at 96 hours, using parents raised under well-controlled conditions. Temperature (18-22 degrees C), salinity (28-34 ppt) and pH (8-8.4) have been fixed to standardize the proposed biological test. Thirty micrograms per litre of copper reduce significantly the length of the larvae and could be used as a positive control. On the other hand, reconstituted sea water permits an optimal development of the larvae and may be used as negative control. A seasonal follow-up of water quality has been achieved to validate the use of this technique in a surveillance network of water quality. The method may be used whatever the salinity, including fresh and brackish waters.