Characterization of expression, cytokine regulation, and effector function of the high affinity IgG receptor Fc gamma RI (CD64) expressed on human blood dendritic cells.

The mechanisms responsible for efficient sequestration of Ag by cells of the dendritic cell (DC) lineage remain incompletely characterized. One pathway, internalization of Ag-IgG complexes via CD32 (the type II IgG FcR, Fc gamma RII) enhances Ag presentation 100-fold over noncomplexed Ag. Blood leukocytes differentially express two additional IgG FcR, Fc gamma RI (CD64) and Fc gamma RIII (CD16), which may also participate in leukocyte functions such as phagocytosis, Ab-dependent cellular cytotoxicity (ADCC), release of oxygen intermediates, and enhancement of Ag presentation. A phagocytically active form of CD64 was recently demonstrated on human blood DC, but complete functional potential of CD64 on the DC lineage remains undefined. Therefore, highly purified human blood DC (CD33(2)+, CD14-, CD11c2+, HLA-DR3+, CD64+ (CD83+ after overnight culture)) and monocytes (CD33(2)+, CD14(3)+, CD11c2+, HLA-DR+, CD64(2)+, CD83-) were compared for cytokine modulation and effector functions of CD64. Both DC and monocyte CD64 expression was increased by IFN-gamma and IL-10, but while monocyte CD64 was decreased by IL-4, DC CD64 remained unchanged. FcR-mediated functional differences were also evident between the DC and the monocytes. Monocytes generated robust Fc gamma R-dependent superoxide anion release and ADCC activity, while DC failed to release reactive oxygen intermediates and demonstrated minimal ADCC activity, despite apparently normal expression of the gamma-chain subunit and the signaling molecule Syk. In contrast, DC were more efficient than monocytes with respect to T cell activation when Ag was targeted specifically to CD64. These new findings suggest a previously unappreciated potential for CD64 to shape the immune response by dramatically increasing the efficiency with which DC sequester Ag prior to achieving full T cell stimulatory potential.

Intracluster restriction of Fc receptor gamma-chain tyrosine phosphorylation subverted by a protein-tyrosine phosphatase inhibitor.

This study shows that aggregation of U937 cell high affinity IgG Fc receptor (Fc gamma RI) results in the transient tyrosine phosphorylation of Fc gamma RI gamma-chain but not the phosphorylation of gamma-chains associated with nonaggregated IgA Fc receptors (Fc alpha R) on the same cells. Thus, normally, tyrosine phosphorylation of gamma-chains is limited to FcR in aggregates. In contrast, aggregation of Fc gamma RI in the presence of vanadate induced the sustained tyrosine phosphorylation of Fc gamma RI gamma-chains and the rapid and extensive phosphorylation of nonaggregated Fc alpha R gamma-chains and low affinity IgG Fc receptors (Fc gamma RII). This global phosphorylation of motifs on nonaggregated FcR was also detected upon aggregation of Fc alpha R or Fc gamma RII, which induced the phosphorylation of nonaggregated Fc gamma RI gamma-chains. Vanadate prevented dephosphorylation of proteins and increased kinase activity in stimulated cells. Evidence failed to support alternative explanations such as acquisition of phospho-gamma through subunit exchange or a coalescence of nonaggregated with aggregated FcR. It is likely, therefore, that activated kinases interacted with nonaggregated FcR in stimulated cells. Pervanadate induced the tyrosine phosphorylation of gamma-chains in the absence of FcR cross-linking, indicating that the kinases could be activated by phosphatase inhibition and could react with nonaggregated substrates. We conclude that under normal conditions there is a vanadate-sensitive mechanism that prevents tyrosine phosphorylation of nonaggregated FcR gamma-chain motifs in activated cells, restricting their phosphorylation to aggregates.

Construction and characterization of a humanized anti-gamma-Ig receptor type I (Fc gamma RI) monoclonal antibody.

The murine mAb 22 (M22) binds to the human high affinity receptor for the Fc portion of IgG (Fc gamma RI). This mAb recognizes an epitope on Fc gamma RI that is distinct from the natural ligand (Fc) binding site, and, therefore, can bind to Fc gamma RI in the presence of saturating levels of IgG found in vivo. Fc gamma RI is expressed only on cytotoxic effector cells and it acts as an efficient mediator (trigger molecule) of effector functions. Directing tumor cells or other pathogens to Fc gamma RI utilizing M22 conjugated to an anti-tumor- or to an anti-pathogen-specific mAb may represent an effective method to enhance their removal and destruction under physiologic conditions. Humanization of M22 may improve the therapeutic potential of the mAb since murine mAbs normally elicit a human anti-mouse Ab response. In this report we describe the humanization of M22 by CDR-grafting onto human V region frameworks based on KOL VH and REI V kappa attached to human IgG1 and kappa constant domains. This humanized mAb, H22, displays equivalent binding specificity and affinity as its murine counterpart. In addition, H22 is able to trigger superoxide release from Fc gamma RI-bearing cells, a finding that demonstrates that H22 triggers Fc gamma RI functions. The successful humanization of mAb 22 is an important step in the development of Fc gamma RI-directed immunotherapy.

A novel role for IgG-Fc. Transductional potentiation for human high affinity Fc gamma receptor (Fc gamma RI) signaling.

Human type 1 Fc gamma receptors (Fc gamma RI) bind with high affinity (Kd = approximately 10(-9) M) Fc regions of monomeric IgG1 and IgG3. As demonstrated in this report, interaction of IgG-Fc with the ligand binding site on Fc gamma RI alters its capacity for aggregation-dependent signaling. This Fc-dependence was demonstrated in normal monocytes and U937-10.6 cells exposed to monomeric IgG and then to anti-Fc gamma RI F(ab')2 that cross-link the receptor. Using O2- production to measure cell signaling, we found that binding by high affinity IgGs of various species, as well as by murine hybrid IgGs containing only one high affinity heavy chain, resulted in a marked increase in Fc gamma RI-mediated signaling. Preaggregated Fc gamma RI/IgG had a ratio of one. IgG binding after aggregation of unligated Fc gamma RI did not restore signaling. Dose responses indicated that concentrations of IgG that saturated Fc gamma RI optimized transductional activity. The inclusion of unligated with ligated Fc gamma RI in aggregates depressed activity, indicating a lack of trans-activation of unligated Fc gamma RI. Significantly, IgG-binding markedly increased aggregation-dependent tyrosine phosphorylation of Fc gamma RI gamma-chains and the association of tyrosine phosphorylated Syk. Thus, the consequences of IgG-Fc binding were increases in aggregation-dependent phosphorylation of Fc gamma RI gamma-chains, recruitment of pp72Syk to Fc gamma RI, and signaling of the NADPH oxidase pathway.

Association of IgA-Fc receptors (Fc alpha R) with Fc epsilon RI gamma 2 subunits in U937 cells. Aggregation induces the tyrosine phosphorylation of gamma 2.

We investigated the possibility that IgA-binding chains of Fc alpha R on monocytic cells are physically associated with gamma 2 subunits of Fc epsilon RI (Fc epsilon RI gamma 2 or gamma 2). Fc alpha R was precipitated from lysates of IFN gamma-treated U937 cells, subclone 10.6, and probed by immunoblotting with Ab against human gamma 2. Fc alpha R was precipitated through anti-Fc alpha R mAbs A59 or A62, through A62 from lysates that had been exhaustively precleared of high affinity IgG-Fc receptors (Fc gamma RI) and of low affinity Fc gamma RII, and through anti-Fc alpha R mAb A77 from Fc gamma RI-precleared lysates of untreated 10.6 cells. precipitation was also performed through F(ab')2 A77 and through the native ligand of the receptor, hlgA. In all cases, Fc alpha R precipitates contained co-isolated 22-kDa gamma 2 (unreduced). The Fc alpha R alpha-chain/gamma 2 complex did not readily dissociate in 1% Nonidet P-40 as did Fc gamma RI alpha-chain/gamma 2, suggesting a novel aspect to the Fc alpha R subunit interaction. Specific Fc alpha R aggregation on cells triggered a robust respiratory burst and the tyrosine phosphorylation of several proteins. Among them was phospho-gamma 2, which migrated as a 24- to 28-kDa gamma 2 phosphoprotein on gels and was detected as a 28-kDa phosphoprotein by anti-phosphotyrosine immunoblot. Aggregated Fc alpha Rs that were precipitated from Fc alpha R-triggered cells also contained a phosphoprotein of the same mobility and immunoreactivity, as did aggregated Fc gamma RI from which the 28-kDa phosphoprotein could be more readily eluted and identified (as phospho-gamma 2). We concluded that myelocytic Fc alpha Rs are multichain complexes containing gamma 2 subunits that are tyrosine phosphorylated upon Fc alpha R aggregation. As IgA is the predominant Ig on mucosal surfaces, gamma-subunits may play an important role in mucosal immunity involving leukocytic Fc alpha R.

Induction of intracellular Ca2+ mobilization and cytotoxicity by hybrid mouse monoclonal antibodies. Fc gamma RII regulation of Fc gamma RI-triggered functions or signaling?

We studied the interaction of bispecific mouse mAb with human IgG Fc receptors, and assessed their ability to activate the monocytic cell line U937. Binding of monomeric hybrid anti-HuIgA1/HRP mAb to the high-affinity IgG receptor, Fc gamma RI, on U937 cells was only observed when mAb with one or more mIgG2a H chains (hybrid mIgG1-2a, mIgG2a-2b, and mIgG2a-2a) were used. These Fc gamma RI-bound hybrid mAb were capable of enhancing the internal free cytosolic Ca2+ concentration ([Ca2+]i) in U937 cells only when bound mIgG were cross-linked using F(ab')2 fragments of goat anti-mIg antibody. A hybrid mIgG1-2a mAb were cross-linked using goat anti-mIgG1 antibody, showing that the hybrid mAb themselves mediate the induction of Ca2+ increase. Remarkably, anti-Fc gamma RII mAb IV.3 was able to inhibit the Ca2+ increase induced via mIgG2a-1 or mIgG1-2a hybrid mAb completely, despite the fact that we could not detect any effect of IV.3 on binding of monomeric hybrid mIgG1-2a or mIgG2a-1 mAb to U937. The hybrid mAb were also able to induce lysis of HuIgA1-coated E using U937 effector cells. This lysis was completely inhibited by preincubation of U937 cells with mIgG2a mAb TB-3, which blocks Fc gamma RI via its Fc-part ("Kurlander phenomenon"). In contrast, Fc gamma RII-blocking mAb IV.3 and CIKM5 caused a significant enhancement of the antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity (ADCC) activity mediated by hybrid mIgG1-2a and mIgG2a-2b mAb. This enhancement did not occur when the parental anti-HuIgA1/2a or the hybrid anti-HuIgA1/HRP/2a-2a mAb were evaluated for ADCC activity. These findings suggest that hybrid mAb not only can bind to Fc gamma RI, but can mediate functional activation of myeloid cells. Given the effect of mAb IV.3 on [Ca2+]i changes and ADCC triggered through IgG1-2a mAb, we suggest that Fc gamma RII may have a role in the regulation of Fc gamma RI-triggered functions or signaling.

Functional comparison of the inductions of NADPH oxidase activity and Fc gamma RI in IFN gamma-treated U937 cells.

The capacity to generate superoxide anion (O2-) can be induced in U937 cells by various agents known to cause myeloid cell differentiation. Other reported differentiation events include diminished cell proliferation and the induction by gamma-interferon (IFN gamma) of Fc receptors for immunoglobulin G1 (Fc gamma RI). In this study, we differentiated U937 cells and high Fc gamma RI-expression mutants of U937 cells by treating them with IFN gamma. We compared the time courses over which surface Fc gamma RI became maximal, NADPH oxidase activity was induced, and the antiproliferative effect of IFN gamma was detected. Oxidase activity was measured by stimulating cells with PMA or by activating surface Fc gamma RI using aggregated human IgG1 or second antibody crosslinking of mAb 32/Fc gamma RI complexes. We found that IFN gamma in the absence of additional lymphokines induced high levels of oxidase activity in maximally differentiated U937 cells with even higher levels in the fully differentiated high-Fc gamma RI expression mutants (greater than 8 nmoles/10(6) cells/min for A12.13 cells). Over the course of differentiation, maximal induced levels of Fc gamma RI were reached after 1 to 2 days of IFN gamma treatment, prior to the antiproliferative effect of the lymphokine. In contrast, oxidase activity was induced after a lag of approximately 2 days, becoming maximal only after 4 to 6 days of IFN gamma treatment. This comparison of the induction of Fc gamma RI with that of oxidase activity triggered through Fc gamma RI indicated that the rapid increase of surface receptor was not accompanied by a completion of the pathway of Fc gamma RI-mediated oxidase activity. However, the time courses of induction detected by PMA and Fc gamma RI-agonists were coincident suggesting that the development of oxidative capacity could be due to the induction of components required by both the PMA- and surface receptor-mediated pathways. There are several oxidase components that are known to be IFN gamma-inducible, such as the oxidase flavoprotein, a b558 cytochrome peptide, and oxidase-requiring cytosolic components, and it is possible that one or a set of these components could be the limiting factor(s) for IFN gamma-induced oxidase activity.

Transient activation of the NADPH oxidase through Fc gamma RI. Oxidase deactivation precedes internalization of cross-linked receptors.

It is well known that Fc gamma R mediate the rapid release of agents of inflammation and, in addition, play an important role in the uptake of stimulatory antibody complexes. Activation of the FcR for human IgG1 (Fc gamma RI) on human monocytic cells triggers a transient activation of the NADPH oxidase. In this study, we tested the possibility that transience of the NADPH oxidase activation might have been the result of rapid internalization of cross-linked Fc gamma RI. Stimulatory receptor moieties were formed by cross-linking Fc gamma RI with receptor-specific mAb that are known to trigger superoxide anion release. The formation of the stimulatory receptor units was determined by quantitating the rate of superoxide anion production through its reduction of cytochrome c. This rate has been found to correlate with the rate of binding of cross-linking antibody and, therefore, the rate of formation of the stimulatory moieties (receptor aggregates). Internalization of cross-linked Fc gamma RI was measured by quantitation of cell-associated FITC-labeled Fc gamma RI-specific mAb resistant to acid elution. We found that cross-linking antibody bound to Fc gamma RI continued to be taken up by the cells well after cessation of oxidase activity. The constant rate of uptake and the differential effect of temperature on these two functions suggested that they are separately regulated. Quantitation of cross-linked receptors that were inactive, i.e., no longer stimulating superoxide anion production, indicated that 50% of internalizable, and therefore cross-linked, Fc gamma RI remained on the surface after oxidase activity had ceased. This evidence of cessation of oxidase activity before the endocytic uptake of mAb/R stimulatory units indicates that the activated state of surface cross-linked Fc gamma RI is of brief duration and that occupation of the receptors by cross-linking-ligand does not sustain the activated state of the receptor. Thus, Fc gamma RI-mediated oxidase activation is temporally limited to the formation of the stimulatory receptor moiety.

Cross-linking of the high affinity Fc receptor for human immunoglobulin G1 triggers transient activation of NADPH oxidase activity. Continuous oxidase activation requires continuous de novo receptor cross-linking.

Cross-linking of the high affinity Fc receptor for human immunoglobulin G1 (Fc gamma RI) on U937 cells triggered superoxide anion (O-2) release. This was accomplished by the binding of an Fc gamma RI-specific monoclonal antibody, mAb 32, followed by cross-linking of the mAb on the cell with anti-mouse IgG F(ab')2 by Fc gamma RI-specific mAbs 32 and 22 used as an equimolar mixture or by Fc gamma RI-specific mAb 197 (a murine IgG2a and thus a multivalent ligand for Fc gamma RI) alone. At subsaturating concentrations of the Fc gamma RI-cross-linking ligands, O2- generation was continuous over relatively long intervals. However, saturating concentrations triggered an often substantial but always transient O2- burst. This transient burst of oxidase activity ceased with maximal ligand accumulation on the cell. Cells in which oxidase activity had ceased could be restimulated using phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate or aggregated human IgG1, indicating that cessation of O2- generation was not due to a generalized exhaustion or inhibition of the NADPH oxidase pathway. Cells incubated in subsaturating concentrations of cross-linking antibodies continued to release O2- until binding of the ligand ceased. In addition, the rates of O2- production and ligand accumulation were the same. Thus, continuous O2- production appeared to be dependent upon continuous de novo formation of cross-linked and activated Fc gamma RI. Furthermore, the mol of O2- released in response to Fc gamma RI cross-linking by the multivalent ligand mAb 197 were directly proportional to the mol of mAb bound over a range of saturating and subsaturating concentrations. This evidence suggests a quantal relationship between each Fc gamma RI activated (cross-linked) and the resultant oxidase activity and supports a "rate" model for the activation of this response. Thus, each Fc gamma RI entering the pool of activated receptors probably makes a unitary contribution to the signal. An additional finding showed that cross-linked Fc gamma RI became associated with the cell cytoskeleton and that this association was also transient. Dissociation of Fc gamma RI from its cytoskeletal attachment occurred well after cessation of O2- production.

Transmembrane signaling: an ion-flux-independent model for signal transduction by complexed Fc receptors.

Fluxes of Na+/K+ that precede effector functions in stimulated phagocytes are thought to play a role in signal transduction. To examine this hypothesis, phagocytosis, phagosomal acidification, and superoxide anion generation (O2-) were stimulated in media in which the Na+ was replaced with K+ or choline+. Counts of particles internalized and assessment of acidification of the phagosomes by acridine orange staining indicated that Na+/K+ fluxes were not necessary for phagocytosis or phagosomal acidification in J774.2 macrophages. Phagocytosis mediated by the ionophoretic Fc receptor gamma 2b/gamma 1 of J774.2 macrophages was equally independent of a Na+ gradient. Na+/K+ fluxes did not dictate the rate of O2- generation in human monocytes. Therefore, in at least these three effector functions, Na+/K+ fluxes stimulated by Fc- and non-specific receptor binding play neither a signaling nor an enhancing role. An ion-flux-independent model for transmembrane signaling by the Fc receptor is proposed. Others have shown that there is an apparent dependence on the external Na+ concentration for O2- generation and lysosomal secretion by neutrophils. These neutrophils had been pre-treated with NH4+ during a routine purification step. O2- generation stimulated by opsonized zymosan or phorbol myristate acetate, by monocytes or monocyte-derived macrophages, and phagocytosis of opsonized zymosan by J774.2 macrophages, showed dependence on external Na+ only if these cells had been pre-treated with NH4+. Brief NH4+ pre-treatment would be expected to acidify the cytoplasm of the cells. The reversal of this acidification is known to require Na+ for H+ extrusion through the Na+/H+ antiport, thus explaining the apparent Na+ dependence.

Quantitative studies of the mutagenesis of Toxoplasma gondii.

The induction of mutants resistant to 5-fluorodeoxyuridine (FUDR) was used to measure the efficiency of various physical and chemical mutagens on extracellular and intracellular Toxoplasma gondii. The frequency of resistant mutant was measured by plaque assay in human fibroblast cultures in the presence and absence of FUDR. When considered as a function of lethality, the most efficient mutagenesis was obtained with nitrosoguanidine treatment of extracellular parasites and with ethylmethane sulfonate treatment of actively growing intracellular parasites. Each of these treatments increased the frequency of FUDR-resistant mutants from less than one to more than 200 per million parasites. Ultraviolet irradiation, X-rays, and the alkylating mustard ICR-191 also induced FUDR-resistant mutants in a dose-dependent fashion.

The biochemical basis for resistance to adenine arabinoside in a mutant of Toxoplasma gondii.

We have previously reported the isolation and preliminary characterization of a mutant of Toxoplasma gondii that was resistant to adenine arabinoside. Fiftyfold higher concentrations of adenine arabinoside were required to inhibit the growth of the resistant parasite in human fibroblast cultures. To determine the enzymic basis for resistance, we measured the kinases and deaminases that act on adenosine or deoxyadenosine. All of these enzymic activities were found in uninfected human fibroblast cells. The mutant and wild type parasite proved to have similar activities of adenosine deaminase, deoxyadenosine deaminase, and deoxyadenosine kinase. However, the adenine arabinoside resistant mutant had less than 0.1% of the adenosine kinase activity observed in the wild type T. gondii. The mutant parasite is presumably resistant because without adenosine kinase to phosphorylate adenine arabinoside it cannot carry out the first step in the conversion of the analogue to adenine arabinoside triphosphate, the active form. A mutant of 3T6 (mouse) cells previously selected for a loss of adenosine kinase also proved to be resistant to adenine arabinoside.

Specific labeling of intracellular Toxoplasma gondii with uracil.

Radioactive uracil was not significantly incorporated into the nucleic acids of human fibroblast cells. Infection of these cells with Toxoplasma gondii resulted in an exponential increase in the rate of uracil incorporation that paralleled the exponential growth of the parasite. One day after infection the rate of uracil incorporation was increased 100-fold. It was established by autoradiography that all of the [3H] uracil was incorporated into the intracellular parasites. A possible explanation for this difference in ability to use uracil is our observation that the specific activity of uridine phosphorylase was 100-fold greater in partially purified parasites than in the host cell.

Arabinosyl nucleosides inhibit Toxoplasma gondii and allow the selection of resistant mutants.

Adenine arabinoside, which inhibits the synthesis of DNA by intracellular Toxoplasma gondii, is more inhibitory to the parasite than it is to cultured human fibroblast host cells. A single-step mutant of T. gondii that is 50-fold more resistant to adenine arabinoside was isolated after mutagenesis with N-methyl-N'-nitro-N-nitrosoguanidine. Cytosine arabinoside is notably more inhibitory to cultured human cells than it is to T. gondii. Thus in infected cells treated with cytosine arabinoside and labeled with 3H-deoxyuridine nearly all of the label is specifically incorporated into the intracellular T. gondii.