ABSTRACT
OBJECTIVES: The objective of this study was to use a decision-analytic model to examine the potential economic impact of establishing a remunerated programme for pharmacists prescribing for minor ailments (PPMA) in Ontario, Canada. METHODS: A novel decision tool was developed to assess the economic impact of pharmacists prescribing for upper respiratory tract infections (URTIs), contact dermatitis (CD) and conjunctivitis by performing a cost-minimization analysis from a public payer perspective. Two prescribing strategies were compared: (1) PPMA, where patients may seek care from pharmacists or physicians, and (2) the usual care model (UCM), where all patients receive care from physicians. Two remuneration models for the PPMA strategy were also compared: (1) a prescription-detached scenario (PDS), where pharmacists were remunerated CAD$18.00 for each consultation, and (2) a Prescription-Attached Scenario (PAS), where pharmacists were only remunerated if a decision to prescribe was made. KEY FINDINGS: At a service uptake rate of 38% for the PDS, the PPMA model led to savings of $7.51, $4.08 and $5.15 per patient for URTIs, CD and conjunctivitis, respectively. Per 30 000 patients, the PPMA model for these minor ailments was projected to lead to cumulative reductions in visits to the emergency department, family physician and walk-in clinics by 799, 3677 and 5090, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: The results of the study strongly suggest that enabling community pharmacists to assess and prescribe for minor ailments could potentially lead to large savings for the government in Ontario, Canada. In 100% of the PAS scenarios simulated, pharmacists as prescribers led to cost savings.
Subject(s)
Pharmacists , Physicians , Cost-Benefit Analysis , Emergency Service, Hospital , Humans , OntarioABSTRACT
Parathyroid hormone (PTH) significantly affects osteoblast function by altering gene expression. We have identified neuron-derived orphan receptor-1 (NOR-1) as a PTH-induced primary gene in osteoblastic cells. NOR-1, Nurr1, and Nur77 comprise the NGFI-B nuclear orphan receptor family and Nurr1 and Nur77 are PTH-induced primary osteoblastic genes. Ten nM PTH maximally induced NOR-1 mRNA at 2h in primary mouse osteoblasts and at 1h in mouse calvariae. Cycloheximide pretreatment did not inhibit PTH-induced NOR-1 mRNA. PTH activates cAMP-protein kinase A (PKA), protein kinase C (PKC), and calcium signaling. Forskolin (PKA activator) and PMA (PKC activator) mimicked PTH-induced NOR-1 mRNA. Ionomycin (calcium ionophore) and PTH(3-34), which do not activate PKA, failed to induce NOR-1 mRNA. PKA inhibition with H89 blocked PTH- and FSK-induced NOR-1 mRNA. PMA pretreatment to deplete PKC inhibited PMA-induced, but not PTH-induced, NOR-1 mRNA. We conclude that NOR-1 is a PTH-regulated primary osteoblastic gene that is induced mainly through cAMP-PKA signaling.
