The vitamin riboflavin and its derivative lumichrome activate the LasR bacterial quorum-sensing receptor.

Many bacteria use quorum sensing (QS) as an intercellular signaling mechanism to regulate gene expression in local populations. Plant and algal hosts, in turn, secrete compounds that mimic bacterial QS signals, allowing these hosts to manipulate QS-regulated gene expression in bacteria. Lumichrome, a derivative of the vitamin riboflavin, was purified and chemically identified from culture filtrates of the alga Chlamydomonas as a QS signal-mimic compound capable of stimulating the Pseudomonas aeruginosa LasR QS receptor. LasR normally recognizes the N-acyl homoserine lactone (AHL) signal, N-3-oxo-dodecanoyl homoserine lactone. Authentic lumichrome and riboflavin stimulated the LasR receptor in bioassays and lumichrome activated LasR in gel shift experiments. Amino acid substitutions in LasR residues required for AHL binding altered responses to both AHLs and lumichrome or riboflavin. These results and docking studies indicate that the AHL binding pocket of LasR recognizes both AHLs and the structurally dissimilar lumichrome or riboflavin. Bacteria, plants, and algae commonly secrete riboflavin or lumichrome, raising the possibility that these compounds could serve as either QS signals or as interkingdom signal mimics capable of manipulating QS in bacteria with a LasR-like receptor.

Microbial products trigger amino acid exudation from plant roots.

Plants naturally cycle amino acids across root cell plasma membranes, and any net efflux is termed exudation. The dominant ecological view is that microorganisms and roots passively compete for amino acids in the soil solution, yet the innate capacity of roots to recover amino acids present in ecologically relevant concentrations is unknown. We find that, in the absence of culturable microorganisms, the influx rates of 16 amino acids (each supplied at 2.5 microm) exceed efflux rates by 5% to 545% in roots of alfalfa (Medicago sativa), Medicago truncatula, maize (Zea mays), and wheat (Triticum aestivum). Several microbial products, which are produced by common soil microorganisms such as Pseudomonas bacteria and Fusarium fungi, significantly enhanced the net efflux (i.e. exudation) of amino acids from roots of these four plant species. In alfalfa, treating roots with 200 microm phenazine, 2,4-diacetylphloroglucinol, or zearalenone increased total net efflux of 16 amino acids 200% to 2,600% in 3 h. Data from (15)N tests suggest that 2,4-diacetylphloroglucinol blocks amino acid uptake, whereas zearalenone enhances efflux. Thus, amino acid exudation under normal conditions is a phenomenon that probably reflects both active manipulation and passive uptake by microorganisms, as well as diffusion and adsorption to soil, all of which help overcome the innate capacity of plant roots to reabsorb amino acids. The importance of identifying potential enhancers of root exudation lies in understanding that such compounds may represent regulatory linkages between the larger soil food web and the internal carbon metabolism of the plant.

Functional analysis of Sinorhizobium meliloti genes involved in biotin synthesis and transport.

External biotin greatly stimulates bacterial growth and alfalfa root colonization by Sinorhizobium meliloti strain 1021. Several genes involved in responses to plant-derived biotin have been identified in this bacterium, but no genes required for biotin transport are known, and not all loci required for biotin synthesis have been assigned. Searches of the S. meliloti genome database in combination with complementation tests of Escherichia coli biotin auxotrophs indicate that biotin synthesis probably is limited in S. meliloti 1021 by the poor functioning or complete absence of several key genes. Although several open reading frames with significant similarities to genes required for synthesis of biotin in gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria were found, only bioB, bioF, and bioH were demonstrably functional in complementation tests with known E. coli mutants. No sequence or complementation evidence was found for bioA, bioC, bioD, or bioZ. In contrast to other microorganisms, the S. meliloti bioB and bioF genes are not localized in a biotin synthesis operon, but bioB is cotranscribed with two genes coding for ABC transporter-like proteins, designated here bioM and bioN. Mutations in bioM and bioN eliminated growth on alfalfa roots and reduced bacterial capacity to maintain normal intracellular levels of biotin. Taken together, these data suggest that S. meliloti normally grows on exogenous biotin using bioM and bioN to conserve biotin assimilated from external sources.

Roles for riboflavin in the Sinorhizobium-alfalfa association.

Genes contributing to riboflavin production in Sinorhizobium meliloti were identified, and bacterial strains that overproduce this vitamin were constructed to characterize how additional riboflavin affects interactions between alfalfa (Medicago sativa) and S. meliloti. Riboflavin-synthesis genes in S. meliloti were found in three separate linkage groups and designated as ribBA, ribDribC, and ribH for their similarities to Escherichia coli genes. The ribBA and ribC loci complemented corresponding E. coli rib mutants. S. meliloti cells containing extra copies of ribBA released 10 to 20% more riboflavin than a control strain but grew at similar rates in a defined medium lacking riboflavin. Cells carrying extra copies of ribBA colonized roots to densities that were 55% higher than that of a control strain. No effect of extra rib genes was detected on alfalfa grown in the absence or presence of combined N. These results support the importance of extracellular riboflavin for alfalfa root colonization by S. meliloti and are consistent with the hypothesis that this molecule benefits bacteria indirectly through an effect on the plant.