Imaging mass cytometry analysis of Becker muscular dystrophy muscle samples reveals different stages of muscle degeneration.

Becker muscular dystrophy (BMD) is characterised by fiber loss and expansion of fibrotic and adipose tissue. Several cells interact locally in what is known as the degenerative niche. We analysed muscle biopsies of controls and BMD patients at early, moderate and advanced stages of progression using Hyperion imaging mass cytometry (IMC) by labelling single sections with 17 markers identifying different components of the muscle. We developed a software for analysing IMC images and studied changes in the muscle composition and spatial correlations between markers across disease progression. We found a strong correlation between collagen-I and the area of stroma, collagen-VI, adipose tissue, and M2-macrophages number. There was a negative correlation between the area of collagen-I and the number of satellite cells (SCs), fibres and blood vessels. The comparison between fibrotic and non-fibrotic areas allowed to study the disease process in detail. We found structural differences among non-fibrotic areas from control and patients, being these latter characterized by increase in CTGF and in M2-macrophages and decrease in fibers and blood vessels. IMC enables to study of changes in tissue structure along disease progression, spatio-temporal correlations and opening the door to better understand new potential pathogenic pathways in human samples.

Decoding the transcriptome of Duchenne muscular dystrophy to the single nuclei level reveals clinical-genetic correlations.

Duchenne muscular dystrophy is a genetic disease produced by mutations in the dystrophin gene characterized by early onset muscle weakness leading to severe and irreversible disability. The cellular and molecular consequences of the lack of dystrophin in humans are only partially known, which is crucial for the development of new therapies aiming to slow or stop the progression of the disease. Here we have analyzed quadriceps muscle biopsies of seven DMD patients aged 2 to 4 years old and five age and gender matched controls using single nuclei RNA sequencing (snRNAseq) and correlated the results obtained with clinical data. SnRNAseq identified significant differences in the proportion of cell population present in the muscle samples, including an increase in the number of regenerative fibers, satellite cells, and fibro-adipogenic progenitor cells (FAPs) and a decrease in the number of slow fibers and smooth muscle cells. Muscle samples from the younger patients with stable mild weakness were characterized by an increase in regenerative fibers, while older patients with moderate and progressive weakness were characterized by loss of muscle fibers and an increase in FAPs. An analysis of the gene expression profile in muscle fibers identified a strong regenerative signature in DMD samples characterized by the upregulation of genes involved in myogenesis and muscle hypertrophy. In the case of FAPs, we observed upregulation of genes involved in the extracellular matrix regeneration but also several signaling pathways. Indeed, further analysis of the potential intercellular communication profile showed a dysregulation of the communication profile in DMD samples identifying FAPs as a key regulator of cell signaling in DMD muscle samples. In conclusion, our study has identified significant differences at the cellular and molecular levels in the different cell populations present in skeletal muscle samples of patients with DMD compared to controls.

Nintedanib Reduces Muscle Fibrosis and Improves Muscle Function of the Alpha-Sarcoglycan-Deficient Mice.

Sarcoglycanopathies are a group of recessive limb-girdle muscular dystrophies, characterized by progressive muscle weakness. Sarcoglycan deficiency produces instability of the sarcolemma during muscle contraction, leading to continuous muscle fiber injury eventually producing fiber loss and replacement by fibro-adipose tissue. Therapeutic strategies aiming to reduce fibro-adipose expansion could be effective in muscular dystrophies. We report the positive effect of nintedanib in a murine model of alpha-sarcoglycanopathy. We treated 14 Sgca-/- mice, six weeks old, with nintedanib 50 mg/kg every 12 h for 10 weeks and compared muscle function and histology with 14 Sgca-/- mice treated with vehicle and six wild-type littermate mice. Muscle function was assessed using a treadmill and grip strength. A cardiac evaluation was performed by echocardiography and histological study. Structural analysis of the muscles, including a detailed study of the fibrotic and inflammatory processes, was performed using conventional staining and immunofluorescence. In addition, proteomics and transcriptomics studies were carried out. Nintedanib was well tolerated by the animals treated, although we observed weight loss. Sgca-/- mice treated with nintedanib covered a longer distance on the treadmill, compared with non-treated Sgca-/- mice, and showed higher strength in the grip test. Moreover, nintedanib improved the muscle architecture of treated mice, reducing the degenerative area and the fibrotic reaction that was associated with a reversion of the cytokine expression profile. Nintedanib improved muscle function and muscle architecture by reducing muscle fibrosis and degeneration and reverting the chronic inflammatory environment suggesting that it could be a useful therapy for patients with alpha-sarcoglycanopathy.

BNIP3 Is Involved in Muscle Fiber Atrophy in Late-Onset Pompe Disease Patients.

Late-onset Pompe disease (LOPD) is a rare genetic disorder produced by mutations in the GAA gene and is characterized by progressive muscle weakness. LOPD muscle biopsies show accumulation of glycogen along with the autophagic vacuoles associated with atrophic muscle fibers. The expression of molecules related to muscle fiber atrophy in muscle biopsies of LOPD patients was studied using immunofluorescence and real-time PCR. BCL2 and adenovirus E1B 19-kDa interacting protein 3 (BNIP3), a well-known atrogene, was identified as a potential mediator of muscle fiber atrophy in LOPD muscle biopsies. Vacuolated fibers in LOPD patient muscle biopsies were smaller than nonvacuolated fibers and expressed BNIP3. The current data suggested that BNIP3 expression is regulated by inhibition of the AKT-mammalian target of rapamycin pathway, leading to phosphorylation of Unc-51 like autophagy activating kinase 1 (ULK1) at Ser317 by AMP-activated protein kinase. Myoblasts and myotubes obtained from LOPD patients and age-matched controls were studied to confirm these results using different molecular techniques. Myotubes derived from LOPD patients were likewise smaller and expressed BNIP3. Conclusively, transfection of BNIP3 into control myotubes led to myotube atrophy. These findings suggest a cascade that starts with the inhibition of the AKT-mammalian target of rapamycin pathway and activation of BNIP3 expression, leading to progressive muscle fiber atrophy. These results open the door to potential new treatments targeting BNIP3 to reduce its deleterious effects on muscle fiber atrophy in Pompe disease.

RhoA/ROCK2 signalling is enhanced by PDGF-AA in fibro-adipogenic progenitor cells: implications for Duchenne muscular dystrophy.

BACKGROUND: The lack of dystrophin expression in Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) induces muscle fibre and replacement by fibro-adipose tissue. Although the role of some growth factors in the process of fibrogenesis has been studied, pathways activated by PDGF-AA have not been described so far. Our aim was to study the molecular role of PDGF-AA in the fibrotic process of DMD. METHODS: Skeletal muscle fibro-adipogenic progenitor cells (FAPs) from three DMD treated with PDGF-AA at 50 ng/mL were analysed by quantitative mass spectrometry-based proteomics. Western-blot, immunofluorescence, and G-LISA were used to confirm the mass spectrometry results. We evaluated the effects of PDGF-AA on the activation of RhoA pathway using two inhibitors, C3-exoenzyme and fasudil. Cell proliferation and migration were determined by BrdU and migration assay. Actin reorganization and collagen synthesis were measured by phalloidin staining and Sircol assay, respectively. In an in vivo proof of concept study, we treated dba/2J-mdx mice with fasudil for 6 weeks. Muscle strength was assessed with the grip strength. Immunofluorescence and flow cytometry analyses were used to study fibrotic and inflammatory markers in muscle tissue. RESULTS: Mass spectrometry revealed that RhoA pathway proteins were up-regulated in treated compared with non-treated DMD FAPs (n = 3, mean age = 8 ± 1.15 years old). Validation of proteomic data showed that Arhgef2 expression was significantly increased in DMD muscles compared with healthy controls by a 7.7-fold increase (n = 2, mean age = 8 ± 1.14 years old). In vitro studies showed that RhoA/ROCK2 pathway was significantly activated by PDGF-AA (n = 3, 1.88-fold increase, P < 0.01) and both C3-exoenzyme and fasudil blocked that activation (n = 3, P < 0.05 and P < 0.001, respectively). The activation of RhoA pathway by PDGF-AA promoted a significant increase in proliferation and migration of FAPs (n = 3, P < 0.001), while C3-exoenzyme and fasudil inhibited FAPs proliferation at 72 h and migration at 48 and 72 h (n = 3, P < 0.001). In vivo studies showed that fasudil improved muscle function (n = 5 non-treated dba/2J-mdx and n = 6 treated dba/2J-mdx, 1.76-fold increase, P < 0.013), and histological studies demonstrated a 23% reduction of collagen-I expression area (n = 5 non-treated dba/2J-mdx and n = 6 treated dba/2J-mdx, P < 0.01). CONCLUSIONS: Our results suggest that PDGF-AA promotes the activation of RhoA pathway in FAPs from DMD patients. This pathway could be involved in FAPs activation promoting its proliferation, migration, and actin reorganization, which represents the beginning of the fibrotic process. The inhibition of RhoA pathway could be considered as a potential therapeutic target for muscle fibrosis in patients with muscular dystrophies.

Isolation of human fibroadipogenic progenitors and satellite cells from frozen muscle biopsies.

Skeletal muscle contains multiple cell types that work together to maintain tissue homeostasis. Among these, satellite cells (SC) and fibroadipogenic progenitors cells (FAPs) are the two main stem cell pools. Studies of these cells using animal models have shown the importance of interactions between these cells in repair of healthy muscle, and degeneration of dystrophic muscle. Due to the unavailability of fresh patient muscle biopsies, similar analysis of interactions between human FAPs and SCs is limited especially among the muscular dystrophy patients. To address this issue here we describe a method that allows the use of frozen human skeletal muscle biopsies to simultaneously isolate and grow SCs and FAPs from healthy or dystrophic patients. We show that while the purified SCs differentiate into mature myotubes, purified FAPs can differentiate into adipocytes or fibroblasts demonstrating their multipotency. We find that these FAPs can be immortalized and the immortalized FAPs (iFAPs) retain their multipotency. These approaches open the door for carrying out personalized analysis of patient FAPs and interactions with the SCs that lead to muscle loss.

Platelet Derived Growth Factor-AA Correlates With Muscle Function Tests and Quantitative Muscle Magnetic Resonance in Dystrophinopathies.

Introduction: Duchenne (DMD) and Becker (BMD) muscular dystrophy are X-linked muscular disorders produced by mutations in the DMD gene which encodes the protein dystrophin. Both diseases are characterized by progressive involvement of skeletal, cardiac, and respiratory muscles. As new treatment strategies become available, reliable biomarkers and outcome measures that can monitor disease progression are needed for clinical trials. Methods: We collected clinical and functional data and blood samples from 19 DMD patients, 13 BMD patients, and 66 healthy controls (8 pediatric and 58 adult controls), and blood samples from 15 patients with dysferlinopathy (DYSF) and studied the serum concentration of 4 growth factors involved in the process of muscle fibrosis. We correlated the serum concentration of these growth factors with several muscle function tests, spirometry results and fat fraction identified by quantitative Dixon muscle MRI. Results: We found significant differences in the serum concentration of Platelet Derived Growth Factor-AA (PDGF-AA) between DMD patients and pediatric controls, in Connective Tissue Growth Factor (CTGF) between BMD patients and adult controls, and in and Transforming Growth Factor- ß1 (TGF-ß1) between BMD and DYSF patients. PDGF-AA showed a good correlation with several muscle function tests for both DMD and BMD patients and with thigh fat fraction in BMD patients. Moreover, PDGF-AA levels were increased in muscle biopsies of patients with DMD and BMD as was demonstrated by immunohistochemistry and Real-Time PCR studies. Conclusion: Our study suggests that PDGF-AA should be further investigated in a larger cohort of DMD and BMD patients because it might be a good biomarker candidate to monitor the progression of these diseases.

Nintedanib decreases muscle fibrosis and improves muscle function in a murine model of dystrophinopathy.

Duchenne muscle dystrophy (DMD) is a genetic disorder characterized by progressive skeletal muscle weakness. Dystrophin deficiency induces instability of the sarcolemma during muscle contraction that leads to muscle necrosis and replacement of muscle by fibro-adipose tissue. Several therapies have been developed to counteract the fibrotic process. We report the effects of nintedanib, a tyrosine kinase inhibitor, in the mdx murine model of DMD. Nintedanib reduced proliferation and migration of human fibroblasts in vitro and decreased the expression of fibrotic genes such as COL1A1, COL3A1, FN1, TGFB1, and PDGFA. We treated seven mdx mice with 60 mg/kg/day nintedanib for 1 month. Electrophysiological studies showed an increase in the amplitude of the motor action potentials and an improvement of the morphology of motor unit potentials in the animals treated. Histological studies demonstrated a significant reduction of the fibrotic areas present in the skeletal muscles. Analysis of mRNA expression from muscles of treated mice showed a reduction in Col1a1, Col3a1, Tgfb1, and Pdgfa. Western blot showed a reduction in the expression of collagen I in skeletal muscles. In conclusion, nintedanib reduced the fibrotic process in a murine model of dystrophinopathy after 1 month of treatment, suggesting its potential use as a therapeutic drug in DMD patients.

Platelet-Derived Growth Factor BB Influences Muscle Regeneration in Duchenne Muscle Dystrophy.

Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) is characterized by a progressive loss of muscle fibers, and their substitution by fibrotic and adipose tissue. Many factors contribute to this process, but the molecular pathways related to regeneration and degeneration of muscle are not completely known. Platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF)-BB belongs to a family of growth factors that regulate proliferation, migration, and differentiation of mesenchymal cells. The role of PDGF-BB in muscle regeneration in humans has not been studied. We analyzed the expression of PDGF-BB in muscle biopsy samples from controls and patients with DMD. We performed in vitro experiments to understand the effects of PDGF-BB on myoblasts involved in the pathophysiology of muscular dystrophies and confirmed our results in vivo by treating the mdx murine model of DMD with repeated i.m. injections of PDGF-BB. We observed that regenerating and necrotic muscle fibers in muscle biopsy samples from DMD patients expressed PDGF-BB. In vitro, PDGF-BB attracted myoblasts and activated their proliferation. Analysis of muscles from the animals treated with PDGF-BB showed an increased population of satellite cells and an increase in the number of regenerative fibers, with a reduction in inflammatory infiltrates, compared with those in vehicle-treated mice. Based on our results, PDGF-BB may play a protective role in muscular dystrophies by enhancing muscle regeneration through activation of satellite cell proliferation and migration.