Multidisciplinary approach for the study of an Egyptian coffin (late 22nd/early 25th dynasty): combining imaging and spectroscopic techniques.

This paper demonstrates that an educated methodology based on both non-invasive and micro invasive techniques in a two-step approach is a powerful tool to characterize the materials and stratigraphies of an Egyptian coffin, which was restored several times. This coffin, belonging to a certain Mesiset, is now located at the Museo Civico Archeologico of Bologna (inventory number MCABo EG 1963). Scholars attributed it to the late 22nd/early 25th dynasty by stylistic comparison. The first step of the diagnostic approach applied imaging techniques on the whole surface in order to select measurements spots and to unveil both original and restored areas. Images and close microscopic examination of the polychrome surface allowed selecting representative areas to be investigated in situ by portable spectroscopic techniques: X-ray Fluorescence (XRF), Fiber Optic Reflectance Spectroscopy (FORS) and Fourier Transform Infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). After the analysis of the results coming from the first step, very few selected samples were taken to clarify the stratigraphy of the polychrome layers. The first step, based on the combination of imaging and spectroscopic techniques in a totally non-invasive modality, is quite unique in the literature on Egyptian coffins and enabled us to reveal many differences in the ground layer's composition and to identify a remarkable number of pigments in the original and restored areas. This work offered also a chance to check the limitations of the non-invasive approach applied on a complex case, namely the right localization of different materials in the stratigraphy and the identification of binding media. Indeed, to dissolve any remaining doubts on superimposed layers belonging to different interventions, it was necessary to sample few micro-fragments in some selected areas and analyze them prepared as cross-sections. The original ground layer is made of calcite, while the restored areas show the presence of either a mixture of calcite and silicates or a gypsum ground, overlapped by lead white. The original pigments were identified as orpiment, cinnabar and red clay, Egyptian blue and green copper based pigments. Some other pigments, such as white lead, Naples yellow, cerulean blue and azurite were only found in the restored areas.

Observations about a central Brazilian indigenous population: the Bakairi.

PIP: Studies of small, isolated, nonindustrial societies can yield models about the rate of natural increase of indigenous groups, and how changes affect available natural resources, health status, and long-term adaptation. South American Indian populations pose distinct problems. In this study, the aim was to explain population change among the Bakairi of central Brazil in the context of complex historical and social change. Contact with white society has occurred since the 1920s. The fertility rate has been moderate (5.36 children per woman). Information from field research in 1979, 1981, and 1989 was provided on village and household composition marriage patterns, fertility and reproduction, mortality by cause, and recent population trends. Total population was 137 males and 151 females. The estimated crude birth rate was 45.1 births per 1000 people. The crude death rate was 10.4 deaths per 1000 people. Natural rate of increase was 3.47%. The moderate fertility was attributed to the mean birth interval of 4 years, the long breast-feeding period, postpartum sex taboos, and fasting. Other factors may be the nature of forest, which is dry prairie, the limited size of the reservation, and the small percentage of arable land. Other traditional societies have a fertility of 4-8 children; higher fertility is usually associated with colonizing populations that are expanding into new territory. Fertility data was checked several times by first asking individual women for birth and death information, then verifying results with older women in the village, and finally consulting the FUNAI death-birth records, which are considered incomplete. There were 288 Indians living on the Bakairi reservation in 59 households, clustered in a T shape rather than a traditional circle due to FUNAI administrative rules. 80% (47) of households were married couples, and 10% were widows/widowers. Marriage occurred when parents of both families agreed, and took place at an average age of 16.2 years + or - 3.3 years. Divorce was rare, and may have involved a husband impregnating a lover. Causes of death included 41.1% (37) due to lung infections, 12.2% due to liver and heart disease, and 8.9% due to accidents.^ieng