Appropriateness of cardiovascular computed tomography and magnetic resonance imaging in patients with conotruncal defects.

BACKGROUND: To promote the rational use of cardiovascular imaging in patients with congenital heart disease, the American College of Cardiology developed Appropriate Use Criteria (AUC), but its clinical application and pre-release benchmarks have not been evaluated. We aimed to evaluate the appropriateness of indications for cardiovascular magnetic resonance (CMR) and cardiovascular computed tomography (CCT) in patients with conotruncal defects and to identify factors associated with maybe or rarely appropriate (M/R) indications. METHODS: Twelve centers each contributed a median of 147 studies performed prior to AUC publication (01/2020) on patients with conotruncal defects. To incorporate patient characteristics and center-level effects, a hierarchical generalized linear mixed model was used. RESULTS: Of the 1753 studies (80% CMR, and 20% CCT), 16% were rated M/R. Center M/R ranged from 4 to 39%. Infants accounted for 8.4% of studies. In multivariable analyses, patient- and study-level factors associated with M/R rating included: age <1 year (OR 1.90 [1.15-3.13]), truncus arteriosus (vs. tetralogy of Fallot, OR 2.55 [1.5-4.35]), and CCT (vs. CMR, OR 2.67 [1.87-3.83]). None of the provider- or center-level factors reached statistical significance in the multivariable model. CONCLUSIONS: Most CMRs and CCTs ordered for the follow-up care of patients with conotruncal defects were rated appropriate. However, there was significant center-level variation in appropriateness ratings. Younger age, CCT, and truncus arteriosus were independently associated with higher odds of M/R rating. These findings could inform future quality improvement initiatives and further exploration of factors resulting in center-level variation.

Implementation of Appropriate Use Criteria for Transthoracic Echocardiography in Follow-Up Care of Pediatric Patients with Congenital Heart Disease.

BACKGROUND: Indications for transthoracic echocardiography (TTE) from the 2020 Appropriate Use Criteria (AUC) for congenital heart disease (CHD) were incorporated into the institutional electronic ordering system as a clinical decision support tool. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the utilization of TTE and factors affecting the appropriateness of orders for TTE during follow-up care of patients with CHD. METHODS: All transthoracic echocardiographic studies performed during follow-up clinic visits from May 1, 2020, to November 30, 2020, were included. Indications for TTE were rated appropriate, may be appropriate, or rarely appropriate on the basis of the AUC and unclassifiable if the indication was not in the document but related to included lesions. CHD was graded as simple, moderate, or complex on the basis of the Bethesda classification. Logistic regression was used to determine the association of ratings with patient age, insurance status, CHD complexity, and clinician experience and specialty. RESULTS: Of the 5,158 studies, 3,979 (77.2%) were for CHD included in the AUC document, 322 (8%) were unclassifiable, 37 (0.7%) were for CHD not in the document, and 1,142 (22.1%) were for non-CHD indications. Of the 3,657 transthoracic echocardiographic examinations to which AUC ratings could be applied, 95.6% were rated appropriate, 2.4% may be appropriate, and 2.0% rarely appropriate. The highest utilization of TTE was for follow-up of ventricular septal defects, left ventricular outflow tract obstruction, and single ventricles; 46% for unrepaired CHD; 78% for routine surveillance; and the remaining for changes in clinical status. On multivariable analysis, the only significant factor associated with may be appropriate and rarely appropriate ratings was simple CHD (odds ratio, 11.58; 95% CI, 5.36 - 24.98; P < .001). CONCLUSIONS: Three quarters of transthoracic echocardiographic studies ordered during follow-up care in pediatric cardiology clinics are for indications related to CHD. Most examinations for follow-up of CHD were for routine surveillance and indications rated appropriate. Orders for TTE for may be appropriate and rarely appropriate ratings were associated with simple CHD. Although the 2020 AUC document successfully stratifies the majority of indications related to CHD, future documents should consider the unclassifiable CHD indications and the non-CHD indications.

Utility of cardiac CT in infants with congenital heart disease: Diagnostic performance and impact on management.

BACKGROUND: Advances in cardiac CT (CCT) scanner technology allow imaging without anesthesia, and with low radiation dose, making it an attractive technique in infants with congenital heart disease. However, the utility of CCT using a dual-source scanner with respect to diagnostic performance and impact on management has not been systematically studied in this population. METHODS: Retrospective review of infants who underwent CCT to determine the utility of CCT with respect to the following: answering the primary diagnostic question, providing new diagnostic information, prompting a change in management, and concordance with catheterization or surgical inspection. RESULTS: A total of 156 infants underwent 172 scans at a median age of 64 days, (IQR 4-188) from Jan 2016-Dec 2019. The most frequent diagnostic question was related to the pulmonary arteries (43%), followed by the aortic arch (30%), pulmonary veins (26%), coronary arteries (17%), patent ductus arteriosus (10%) and others (9%). A high-pitch spiral scan was frequently used (90%). The median effective radiation dose was low (0.66 â€‹mSv) and general anesthesia was used infrequently (23%). CCT answered the primary diagnostic question in 168/172 (98%) and added to the diagnostic information already available by echocardiography in 161/172 (96%) scans. CCT led to a change in management following 78/172 (53%) scans and had an impact on management following 167/172 (97%) scans. On follow-up, after 107/172 (62%) scans, subjects underwent cardiac surgery, and after 55/172 (32%) scans, they had cardiac catheterization. CCT findings were concordant with catheterization and/or surgical inspection in 156/159 (98%) scans. CONCLUSIONS: In infants with complex congenital heart disease, CCT was accurate, answered the diagnostic questions in nearly all cases, and frequently added diagnostic information that impacted management. Radiation exposure was low, and anesthesia was needed infrequently.

Preoperative Factors That Predict Recurrence After Repair of Discrete Subaortic Stenosis.

BACKGROUND: Several factors predict reintervention for subaortic stenosis (SubAS): age, preoperative left ventricular outflow tract gradient, distance from the obstructive subaortic ridge to the aortic valve, and peeling of membrane from the aortic/mitral valves. We sought to develop a prediction rule to categorize risk of reintervention for recurrent SubAS and guide follow-up in patients with discrete SubAS. METHODS: We retrospectively reviewed patients who underwent SubAS resection between 1984 and 2016. Our primary outcome was reintervention for recurrent SubAS after discharge. Kaplan-Meier estimates were used for time-to-event analysis of any reintervention. Multivariable models were used to create a prediction rule. We excluded patients without 3 years of follow-up. RESULTS: Of 172 patients, 21 (12.2%) required reintervention. The characteristics predicting reintervention were age younger than 2 years (P < .001), preoperative left ventricular outflow tract gradient of 65 mm Hg or more (P = .011), peeling of membrane from the mitral valve (P < .001), distance from the membrane to the aortic valve of less than 5 mm (P < .001), prior complex operation (P = .035), other left-sided heart lesions (P = .008), and aortic annulus z-score of -2.5 or less (P < .001). Our final prediction rule includes age, membrane to aortic valve distance, and other left-sided heart lesions each scored as 1 point. For patients with a score of 1 or less, 4% required a reintervention compared with 34% with a score of 2 or more. CONCLUSIONS: A prediction rule that incorporates the patient's age at the index operation, membrane to aortic valve distance, and associated left-sided heart lesions can determine the likelihood of reintervention for recurrent SubAS.

ACC/AHA/ASE/HRS/ISACHD/SCAI/SCCT/SCMR/SOPE 2020 Appropriate Use Criteria for Multimodality Imaging During the Follow-Up Care of Patients With Congenital Heart Disease: A Report of the American College of Cardiology Solution Set Oversight Committee and Appropriate Use Criteria Task Force, American Heart Association, American Society of Echocardiography, Heart Rhythm Society, International Society for Adult Congenital Heart Disease, Society for Cardiovascular Angiography and Interventions, Society of Cardiovascular Computed Tomography, Society for Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance, and Society of Pediatric Echocardiography.

The American College of Cardiology (ACC) collaborated with the American Heart Association, American Society of Echocardiography, Heart Rhythm Society, International Society for Adult Congenital Heart Disease, Society for Cardiovascular Angiography and Interventions, Society of Cardiovascular Computed Tomography, Society for Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance, and the Society of Pediatric Echocardiography to develop Appropriate Use Criteria (AUC) for multimodality imaging during the follow-up care of patients with congenital heart disease (CHD). This is the first AUC to address cardiac imaging in adult and pediatric patients with established CHD. A number of common patient scenarios (also termed "indications") and associated assumptions and definitions were developed using guidelines, clinical trial data, and expert opinion in the field of CHD.1 The indications relate primarily to evaluation before and after cardiac surgery or catheter-based intervention, and they address routine surveillance as well as evaluation of new-onset signs or symptoms. The writing group developed 324 clinical indications, which they separated into 19 tables according to the type of cardiac lesion. Noninvasive cardiac imaging modalities that could potentially be used for these indications were incorporated into the tables, resulting in a total of 1,035 unique scenarios. These scenarios were presented to a separate, independent panel for rating, with each being scored on a scale of 1 to 9, with 1 to 3 categorized as "Rarely Appropriate," 4 to 6 as "May Be Appropriate," and 7 to 9 as "Appropriate." Forty-four percent of the scenarios were rated as Appropriate, 39% as May Be Appropriate, and 17% as Rarely Appropriate. This AUC document will provide guidance to clinicians in the care of patients with established CHD by identifying the reasonable imaging modality options available for evaluation and surveillance of such patients. It will also serve as an educational and quality improvement tool to identify patterns of care and reduce the number of Rarely Appropriate tests in clinical practice.

Screening for Intracranial Aneurysms in Coarctation of the Aorta: A Decision and Cost-Effectiveness Analysis.

BACKGROUND: Patients with coarctation of the aorta have a high prevalence of intracranial aneurysms (IA) and suffer subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH) at younger ages than the general population. American Heart Association/American College of Cardiology guidelines recommend IA screening, but appropriate age and interval of screening and its effectiveness remain a critical knowledge gap. METHODS AND RESULTS: To evaluate the benefits and cost-effectiveness of magnetic resonance angiography screening for IA in patients with coarctation of the aorta, we developed and calibrated a Markov model to match published IA prevalence estimates. The primary outcome was the incremental cost-effectiveness ratio. Secondary outcomes included lifetime cumulative incidence of prophylactic IA treatment and mortality and SAH deaths prevented. Using a payer perspective, a lifetime horizon, and a willingness-to-pay of $150 000 per quality-adjusted life-year gained, we applied a 3% annual discounting rate to costs and effects and performed 1-way, 2-way, and probabilistic sensitivity analyses. In a simulated cohort of 10 000 patients, no screening resulted in a 10.1% lifetime incidence of SAH and 183 SAH-related deaths. Screening at ages 10, 20, and 30 years led to 978 prophylactic treatments for unruptured aneurysms, 19 procedure-related deaths, and 65 SAH-related deaths. Screening at ages 10, 20, and 30 years was cost-effective compared with screening at ages 10 and 20 years (incremental cost-effectiveness ratio $106 841/quality-adjusted life-year). Uncertainty in the outcome after aneurysm treatment and quality of life after SAH influenced the preferred screening strategy. In probabilistic sensitivity analysis, screening at ages 10, 20, and 30 years was cost-effective in 41% of simulations and at ages 10 and 20 in 59% of simulations. CONCLUSIONS: Our model supports the American Heart Association/American College of Cardiology recommendation to screen patients with coarctation of the aorta for IA and suggests screening at ages 10 and 20 or at 10, 20, and 30 years would extend life and be cost-effective.

Fetal Aortic Valvuloplasty for Evolving Hypoplastic Left Heart Syndrome: A Decision Analysis.

BACKGROUND: Fetal aortic valvuloplasty (FAV) may prevent progression of midgestation aortic stenosis to hypoplastic left heart syndrome. However, FAV has well-established risks, and its survival benefit remains unknown. Our primary aim was to determine whether FAV for midgestation aortic stenosis increases survival from fetal diagnosis to age 6 years. METHODS AND RESULTS: We performed a retrospective analysis of 143 fetuses who underwent FAV from 2000 to 2017 and a secondary analysis of the Pediatric Heart Network Single Ventricle Reconstruction trial. Using these results, we developed a decision model to estimate probability of transplant-free survival from fetal diagnosis to age 6 years and postnatal restricted mean transplant-free survival time. FAV was technically successful in 84% of 143 fetuses with fetal demise in 8%. Biventricular circulation was achieved in 50% of 111 live-born infants with successful FAV but in only 16% of the 19 patients with unsuccessful FAV. The model projected overlapping probabilities of transplant-free survival to age 6 years at 75% (95% CI, 67%-82%) with FAV versus 72% (95% CI, 61%-82%) with expectant fetal management, resulting in a restricted mean transplant-free survival time benefit of 1.2 months. When limiting analyses to the improved FAV experience since 2009 to reflect current practice, (probability of technical success [94%], fetal demise [4%], and biventricular circulation [66%]), the model projected that FAV increased the probability of survival to age 6 years to 82% (95% CI, 73%-89%). Expectant management is favored if risk of fetal demise exceeded 12% or probability of biventricular circulation fell below 26%, but FAV remained favored over plausible recent range of technical success. CONCLUSIONS: Our model suggests that FAV provides a modest, medium-term survival benefit over expectant fetal management. Appropriate patient selection and low risk of fetal demise with FAV are critical factors for obtaining a survival benefit.

Low mortality in fetal supraventricular tachycardia: Outcomes in a 30-year single-institution experience.

OBJECTIVES: To describe a single institutional experience managing fetuses with supraventricular tachycardia (SVT) and to identify associations between patient characteristics and fetal and postnatal outcomes. BACKGROUND: Sustained fetal SVT is associated with significant morbidity and mortality if untreated, yet the optimal management strategy remains unclear. METHODS: Retrospective cohort study including fetuses diagnosed with sustained SVT (>50% of the diagnostic echocardiogram) between 1985 and 2018. Fetuses with congenital heart disease were excluded. RESULTS: Sustained SVT was diagnosed in 65 fetuses at a median gestational age of 30 weeks (range, 14-37). Atrioventricular re-entrant tachycardia and atrial flutter were the most common diagnoses, seen in 41 and 16 cases, respectively. Moderate/severe ventricular dysfunction was present in 20 fetuses, and hydrops fetalis was present in 13. Of the 57 fetuses initiated on transplacental drug therapy, 47 received digoxin first-line, yet 39 of 57 (68%) required advanced therapy with sotalol, flecainide, or amiodarone. Rate or rhythm control was achieved in 47 of 57 treated fetuses. There were no cases of intrauterine fetal demise. Later gestational age at fetal diagnosis (odds ratio [OR], 1.1, 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.01-1.2, P = .02) and moderate/severe fetal ventricular dysfunction (OR, 6.1, 95% CI, 1.7-21.6, P = .005) were associated with postnatal SVT. Two postnatal deaths occurred. CONCLUSIONS: Fetuses with structurally normal hearts and sustained SVT can be effectively managed with transplacental drug therapy with minimal risk of intrauterine fetal demise. Treatment requires multiple antiarrhythmic agents in over half of cases. Later gestational age at fetal diagnosis and the presence of depressed fetal ventricular function, but not hydrops, predict postnatal arrhythmia burden.

A National Population-based Study of Adults With Coronary Artery Disease and Coarctation of the Aorta.

Adults with repaired coarctation of the aorta (CoA) suffer reduced long-term survival compared with the general population, in part due to coronary artery disease (CAD). There is conflicting evidence as to whether or not CoA is an independent risk factor for CAD. The primary aim was to determine if CoA is independently associated with premature myocardial infarction (MI) in the contemporary era. The secondary aim was to determine if CoA is independently associated with early coronary intervention. In a cross-sectional study using the National Inpatient Sample database from 2005 to 2014, we compared the age at MI and the age at coronary intervention (coronary artery bypass grafting or percutaneous coronary intervention, in the absence of MI diagnosis) in patients with and without CoA using weighted linear regression. Among 5,472,416 observations with a primary diagnosis of MI, 174 had a diagnosis of CoA. Patients with CoA had MI 7.2 years younger than those without CoA, after adjusting for potential confounders (95% CI -11.3, -3.1, p = 0.001). Among 3,631,718 patients without a diagnosis of MI who underwent coronary artery bypass grafting or percutaneous coronary intervention, 279 had a diagnosis of CoA. Patients with CoA who underwent coronary intervention were 15.6 years younger than those without CoA, after adjusting for potential confounders (95% CI -18.3, -12.9, p < 0.001). In conclusion, patients with CoA have MI at a slightly younger age and undergo coronary intervention at a significantly younger age than those without CoA in the contemporary era. Our findings support continued close surveillance for and treatment of modifiable risk factors for CAD.

Stroke in Adults With Coarctation of the Aorta: A National Population-Based Study.

BACKGROUND: Adults with repaired coarctation of the aorta (CoA) have reduced long-term survival compared with the general population. This study aimed to determine whether CoA is independently associated with premature ischemic and hemorrhagic stroke in the contemporary era. METHODS AND RESULTS: This was a cross-sectional study utilizing the National Inpatient Sample database from 2005 to 2014. We hypothesized that patients with CoA are hospitalized with ischemic and hemorrhagic stroke at a younger age compared with the general population. To test this hypothesis, we compared the age at stroke in patients with and without a diagnosis of CoA using simple and multivariable weighted linear regression. Among 4 894 582 stroke discharges, 207 had a diagnosis of CoA. Patients with CoA had strokes at significantly younger age compared with patients without CoA: 18.9 years younger for all-cause stroke (P<0.001), 15.9 years younger for ischemic stroke (P<0.001), and 28.5 years younger for hemorrhagic stroke (P<0.001), after adjusting for potential confounders. There was no significant difference in the proportion of ischemic strokes between those with and without CoA (79.2% versus 83.0%, P=0.50). However, CoA patients had a higher proportion of subarachnoid hemorrhage (11.8% versus 4.8%, P=0.039) than those without CoA. Among patients who had a hemorrhagic stroke, the prevalence of unruptured intracranial aneurysms was higher in patients with CoA compared with those without CoA (23.3% versus 2.5%, P=0.002). CONCLUSIONS: Patients with CoA have both ischemic and hemorrhagic strokes at significantly younger ages compared with the general population.

Imaging adult patients with discrete subvalvar aortic stenosis.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: Distinction between discrete subvalvar aortic stenosis and other causes of left ventricular outflow obstruction has important implications for predicting natural history and guiding the timing and type of intervention. Imaging, primarily transthoracic echocardiography (TTE), plays a pivotal role in the diagnosis and management of adults with subvalvar aortic stenosis. RECENT FINDINGS: Most systematic research on imaging of subvalvar aortic stenosis has focused on echocardiography. TTE, especially two-dimensional imaging with color and spectral Doppler, remains the main modality for delineation of the anatomic and hemodynamic features of subvalvar stenosis, associated anomalies and involvement of accessory mitral valve attachments to the subaortic septum or abnormally placed papillary muscles. Transesophageal echocardiography may provide more detailed definition of left ventricular outflow tract anatomy, including the presence and extension of the obstructive subaortic fibroelastic tissue onto the aortic or mitral valve, especially in patients with poor transthoracic windows. The clinical role for advanced imaging technologies, including three-dimensional echocardiography, cardiac magnetic resonance and computed tomography, is evolving but, largely because of the adequacy of established imaging with TTE, remains relatively limited. SUMMARY: In the absence of other congenital heart defects or alternative indications (e.g. coronary angiography), TTE is usually adequate for the assessment of discrete subvalvar aortic stenosis in the adult. In specific clinical situations, supplemental imaging modalities can play an integral role in clinical decision making.

Long-term outcomes and risk factors for aortic regurgitation after discrete subvalvular aortic stenosis resection in children.

OBJECTIVES: To characterise long-term outcomes after discrete subaortic stenosis (DSS) resection and to identify risk factors for reoperation and aortic regurgitation (AR) requiring repair or replacement. METHODS: All patients who underwent DSS resection between 1984 and 2009 at our institution with at least 36 months' follow-up were included. Demographic, surgical and echocardiographic data were reviewed. Outcomes were reoperation for recurrent DSS, surgery for AR, death and morbidities, including heart transplant, endocarditis and complete heart block. RESULTS: Median length of postoperative follow-up was 10.9 years (3-27.2 years). Reoperation occurred in 32 patients (21%) and plateaued 10 years after initial resection. Survival at 10 years and 20 years was 98.6% and 86.3%, respectively. Aortic valve (AoV) repair or replacement for predominant AR occurred in 31 patients (20%) during or after DSS resection. By multivariable analysis, prior aortic stenosis (AS) intervention (HR 22.4, p<0.001) was strongly associated with AoV repair or replacement. Risk factors for reoperation by multivariable analysis included younger age at resection (HR 1.24, p=0.003), preoperative gradient ≥60 mm Hg (HR 2.23, p=0.04), peeling of membrane off AoV or mitral valve (HR 2.52, p=0.01), distance of membrane to AoV <7.0 mm (HR 4.03, p=0.03) and AS (HR 2.58, p=0.01). CONCLUSIONS: In this cohort, the incidence of reoperations after initial DSS resection plateaued after 10 years. Despite a significant rate of reoperation, overall survival was good. Concomitant congenital AS and its associated interventions significantly increased the risk of AR requiring surgical intervention.

Intestinal malrotation and catastrophic volvulus in infancy.

BACKGROUND: Intestinal malrotation in the newborn is usually diagnosed after signs of intestinal obstruction, such as bilious emesis, and corrected with the Ladd procedure. OBJECTIVES: The objective of this report is to describe the presentation of severe cases of midgut volvulus presenting in infancy, and to discuss the characteristics of these cases. CASE REPORT: We performed a 7-year review at our institution and present two cases of catastrophic midgut volvulus presenting in the post-neonatal period, ending in death soon after the onset of symptoms. These two patients also had significant laboratory abnormalities compared to patients with more typical presentations resulting in favorable outcomes. CONCLUSIONS: Although most cases of intestinal malrotation in infancy can be treated successfully, in some circumstances, patients' symptoms may not be detected early enough for effective treatment, and therefore may result in catastrophic midgut volvulus and death.

Wall shear stress is decreased in the pulmonary arteries of patients with pulmonary arterial hypertension: An image-based, computational fluid dynamics study.

Previous clinical studies in pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH) have concentrated predominantly on distal pulmonary vascular resistance, its contribution to the disease process, and response to therapy. However, it is well known that biomechanical factors such as shear stress have an impact on endothelial health and dysfunction in other parts of the vasculature. This study tested the hypothesis that wall shear stress is reduced in the proximal pulmonary arteries of PAH patients with the belief that reduced shear stress may contribute to pulmonary endothelial cell dysfunction and as a result, PAH progression. A combined MRI and computational fluid dynamics (CFD) approach was used to construct subject-specific pulmonary artery models and quantify flow features and wall shear stress (WSS) in five PAH patients with moderate-to-severe disease and five age- and sex-matched controls. Three-dimensional model reconstruction showed PAH patients have significantly larger main, right, and left pulmonary artery diameters (3.5 ± 0.4 vs. 2.7 ± 0.1 cm, P = 0.01; 2.5 ± 0.4 vs. 1.9 ± 0.2 cm, P = 0.04; and 2.6 ± 0.4 vs. 2.0 ± 0.2 cm, P = 0.01, respectively), and lower cardiac output (3.7 ± 1.2 vs. 5.8 ± 0.6 L/min, P = 0.02.). CFD showed significantly lower time-averaged central pulmonary artery WSS in PAH patients compared to controls (4.3 ± 2.8 vs. 20.5 ± 4.0 dynes/cm(2), P = 0.0004). Distal WSS was not significantly different. A novel method of measuring WSS was utilized to demonstrate for the first time that WSS is altered in some patients with PAH. Using computational modeling in patient-specific models, WSS was found to be significantly lower in the proximal pulmonary arteries of PAH patients compared to controls. Reduced WSS in proximal pulmonary arteries may play a role in the pathogenesis and progression of PAH. This data may serve as a basis for future in vitro studies of, for example, effects of WSS on gene expression.

Short- and long-term outcomes of necrotizing enterocolitis in infants with congenital heart disease.

OBJECTIVE: Congenital heart disease is a significant risk factor for necrotizing enterocolitis in the term infant. We compared the short- and long-term necrotizing enterocolitis-specific outcomes of infants with congenital heart disease with those of neonates without congenital heart disease. PATIENTS AND METHODS: A retrospective study of 202 patients with necrotizing enterocolitis treated at our center from May 1999 to August 2007 was conducted. Infants with necrotizing enterocolitis were grouped according to the presence (n = 76) or absence (n = 126) of congenital heart disease. Demographic and necrotizing enterocolitis-specific outcomes were recorded. The groups were compared by nonparametric and chi(2) analyses. Univariate and multivariate odds ratios were determined for each outcome. RESULTS: The average birth weight and gestational age of the 2 groups were not significantly different. The initial necrotizing enterocolitis severity, as determined by Bell stage, was less for necrotizing enterocolitis subjects with congenital heart disease compared with those without congenital heart disease. When controlling for birth weight and gestational age, the congenital heart disease group had decreased risk of perforation, need for a bowel operation, strictures, need for a stoma, sepsis, and short bowel syndrome compared with the non-congenital heart disease group. Although not statistically significant, subjects with congenital heart disease had a trend toward decreased risk of death from necrotizing enterocolitis, recurrent necrotizing enterocolitis, and need for peritoneal drainage. CONCLUSIONS: Infants with congenital heart disease and necrotizing enterocolitis have decreased risk of major short- and long-term negative outcomes associated with necrotizing enterocolitis compared with neonates without congenital heart disease. Differences in initial severity, range of age at diagnosis, and prognoses between subjects with necrotizing enterocolitis with and without cardiac disease suggest that necrotizing enterocolitis in the cardiac patient is a distinct disease process and should be labeled cardiogenic necrotizing enterocolitis.