Recording of fluid, beverage and water intakes at the population level in Europe.

The European Food Safety Authority's 2010 scientific opinion on dietary reference values for total water intakes was partly based on observed intakes in population groups. Large variability was observed, and it is unlikely that these differences can be explained by differences in climate, activity level and/or culture. This suggests that there are uncertainties in the methodologies used to assess water intake from food and fluids, including all types of beverages. To determine current methods for recording and reporting total water, beverages and fluid intakes, twenty-one European countries were surveyed using an electronic questionnaire. In total, twelve countries responded and ten completed surveys were summarised. Countries reported that their survey was representative of the population in terms of age and socio-economic status. However, a variety of methods were used - that is, repeated 24-h recalls, estimated food diaries and FFQ. None of the methods were validated to assess water and fluid intakes. The methods used to record liquid foods - for example, soup and diluted drinks - were inconsistent. Clarity and consistency on definitions of categories of beverages to facilitate comparisons between countries are needed. Recommendations for a unified approach to surveying and quantifying intake of water from fluids and foods are proposed.

Downregulation of IRS-1 in adipose tissue of offspring of obese mice is programmed cell-autonomously through post-transcriptional mechanisms.

We determined the effects of maternal diet-induced obesity on offspring adipose tissue insulin signalling and miRNA expression in the aetiology of insulin resistance in later life. Although body composition and glucose tolerance of 8-week-old male offspring of obese dams were not dysregulated, serum insulin was significantly (p<0.05) elevated. Key insulin signalling proteins in adipose tissue were down-regulated, including the insulin receptor, catalytic (p110ß) and regulatory (p85α) subunits of PI3K as well as AKT1 and 2 (all p<0.05). The largest reduction observed was in IRS-1 protein (p<0.001), which was regulated post-transcriptionally. Concurrently, miR-126, which targets IRS-1, was up-regulated (p<0.05). These two features were maintained in isolated primary pre-adipocytes and differentiated adipocytes in-vitro. We have therefore established that maternal diet-induced obesity programs adipose tissue insulin resistance. We hypothesise that maintenance of the phenotype in-vitro strongly suggests that this mechanism is cell autonomous and may drive insulin resistance in later life.

Poor maternal nutrition programmes a pro-atherosclerotic phenotype in ApoE-/- mice.

Numerous animal studies have consistently shown that early life exposure to LP (low-protein) diet programmes risk factors for CVD (cardiovascular disease) such as dyslipidaemia, high BP (blood pressure) and cardiac dysfunction in the offspring. However, studies on the effect of maternal under-nutrition on offspring development of atherosclerosis are scarce. Applying our LP model to the ApoE(-/-) atherosclerosis-prone mouse model, we investigated the development of atherosclerotic lesions in the aortic root of 6-month-old offspring. In addition, markers of plaque progression including SMA (smooth muscle actin) and Mac3 (macrophage marker 3) were studied. Pregnant dams were fed on a control (20% protein) or on an isocaloric LP diet (8% protein) throughout pregnancy and lactation. After weaning, male offspring were maintained on 20% normal laboratory chow. At 6 months of age, LP offspring showed a significantly greater plaque area (P<0.05) with increased cholesterol clefts and significantly higher indices of DNA damage compared with controls (P<0.05). The expression of HMG-CoA reductase (3-hydroxy-3-methyl-glutaryl-CoA reductase) (P<0.05) and LDL (low-density lipoprotein) receptor in the liver of LP offspring were increased. Furthermore, LP offspring had higher LDL-cholesterol levels (P<0.05) and a trend towards elevated insulin. There were no differences in other lipid measurements and fasting glucose between groups. These observations suggest that early exposure to an LP diet accelerates the development and increases the progression of atherosclerotic lesions in young adult offspring. Future studies are needed to elucidate the specific mechanisms linking in utero exposure to a diet low in protein to the development of atherosclerosis.

Bone mass, bone strength, and their relationship in developing CD-1 mice.

Optimizing nutrition during development may provide effective prevention strategies to protect against osteoporosis during later life. Because the mouse model is commonly used to test nutritional interventions on bone health, the overall objective of this study was to determine how bone develops during the first 4 months of life by assessing bone mass (bone mineral content (BMC) and bone mineral density (BMD)) and biomechanical strength properties such as peak load in male and female CD-1 mice. Bone outcomes were assessed at 1 month intervals from 1 to 4 months of age. Femur and spine BMC and BMD at 3 months were similar to 4 months, indicating that the accumulation of bone mass occurs primarily during the first 3 months of life. In contrast, the timing of changes in peak load, a measure of bone strength, varied by skeletal site. Regression analyses demonstrated that femur BMC is a significant predictor of femur peak load at the femur midpoint and neck. The study findings suggest that nutritional interventions aimed at optimizing peak bone mass to prevent osteoporosis may be most effective during pubertal growth.

Effect of prenatal exposure to isoflavones on bone metabolism in mice at adulthood.

Early postnatal exposure to genistein resulted in improved bone health at early adulthood in mice. The objective of the present study was to determine whether in utero exposure to isoflavones also has a positive effect on bone health, resulting in higher bone mineral density (BMD) and greater resistance to fracture at adulthood. Pregnant mice received daily subcutaneous injections of genistein (3.75 mg), daidzein (3.75 mg), genistein (3.75 mg) + daidzein (3.75 mg), or vehicle from d 9 to 21 of pregnancy. At birth, offspring (n = 12/group/gender) remained with their respective mother and were weaned at postnatal age of 21 d and fed control diet, devoid of isoflavones, until 4 mo of age, at which time tissues were collected. There was an overall effect of treatment on femur BMD, which was higher (p<0.001) among control and genistein groups compared with daidzein and genistein + daidzein groups. Treatment did not have a significant effect on femur peak load. Among females, daidzein resulted in a lower (p=0.02) BMD of lumbar vertebra (LV) 1-4 than all other groups however peak load of LV4 did not differ due to treatment or gender. In conclusion, in utero exposure to isoflavones did not result in functional benefits to bone at young adulthood.

Effect of neonatal exposure to genistein on bone metabolism in mice at adulthood.

Infants fed soy-based infant formulas are exposed to high levels of genistein, an isoflavone, with potential estrogen-like activity. This study determined whether neonatal exposure of mice to genistein resulted in higher bone mineral density (BMD) and greater resistance to fracture at adulthood. Male and female CD-1 mice (n = 4-14/group) were randomized to control (CON) (corn oil, s.c.), diethylstilbestrol (DES) (2 microg/pup/d, s.c.), or genistein (GEN) (4 microg/pup/d, s.c.) from d 1 through 5 of life. At 21 d of age, pups were weaned and studied until 4 mo of age when tissues were collected. Among females, femur (p = 0.016) and lumbar vertebrae (LV1-LV4) (p < 0.001) BMD were higher among DES and GEN groups compared with CON group. Importantly, the higher LV1-LV4 BMD was associated with stronger vertebrae that were more resistant to fracture as the peak load of LV3 (p = 0.012) was higher in the GEN and DES groups compared with CON group. In males, DES and GEN had divergent effects on femur and lumbar vertebrae BMD and peak load. In conclusion, early exposure to GEN has positive effects on femur and lumbar spine of females, likely due to estrogenic effects, while only the lumbar spine of males benefits from early exposure to GEN.

Home-fortification with iron and zinc sprinkles or iron sprinkles alone successfully treats anemia in infants and young children.

Although iron deficiency is the most common single-nutrient deficiency in infants and children, other deficiencies may develop concurrently, including zinc deficiency. In previous studies, we used home-fortification with "Sprinkles," single-serve sachets containing microencapsulated ferrous fumarate added to weaning foods, to successfully treat anemia. This mode of micronutrient delivery is amenable to the delivery of other micronutrients. However, the relative efficacy of multiple micronutrient supplements for the treatment of anemia requires evaluation due to possible nutrient interactions. Thus, we evaluated the relative efficacy of Sprinkles formulated with iron and zinc in anemic infants, compared with Sprinkles formulated with iron alone. We studied 304 anemic infants (mean age 10.3 +/- 2.5 mo; hemoglobin 87.4 +/- 8.4 g/L) in rural Ghana. A combined supplementation group (FeZn) received daily Sprinkles containing 80 mg iron and 10 mg zinc; a comparison group (Fe) received Sprinkles (80 mg iron) without zinc for 2 mo. The rate of recovery from anemia was higher in the Fe group compared with the FeZn group (74.8 vs. 62.9%; P = 0.048). The plasma zinc concentration decreased significantly in both groups (P < 0.05). A significant decline in the height for age Z-score was observed in the FeZn group (P = 0.0011), but there was no change in the Fe group. These results suggest that in a controlled setting, home-fortification using micronutrient Sprinkles with iron, or iron and zinc, was very successful in treating anemia; however, this intervention alone was insufficient to improve zinc status or promote catch-up growth in this stunted and wasted population.