Triplet-driven chemical reactivity of ß-carotene and its biological implications.

The endoperoxides of ß-carotene (ßCar-EPOs) are regarded as main products of the chemical deactivation of 1O2 by ß-carotene, one of the most important antioxidants, following a concerted singlet-singlet reaction. Here we challenge this view by showing that ßCar-EPOs are formed in the absence of 1O2 in a non-concerted triplet-triplet reaction: 3O2 + 3ß-carotene → ßCar-EPOs, in which 3ß-carotene manifests a strong biradical character. Thus, the reactivity of ß-carotene towards oxygen is governed by its excited triplet state. ßCar-EPOs, while being stable in the dark, are photochemically labile, and are a rare example of nonaromatic endoperoxides that release 1O2, again not in a concerted reaction. Their light-induced breakdown triggers an avalanche of free radicals, which accounts for the pro-oxidant activity of ß-carotene and the puzzling swap from its anti- to pro-oxidant features. Furthermore, we show that ßCar-EPOs, and carotenoids in general, weakly sensitize 1O2. These findings underlie the key role of the triplet state in determining the chemical and photophysical features of ß-carotene. They shake up the prevailing models of carotenoid photophysics, the anti-oxidant functioning of ß-carotene, and the role of 1O2 in chemical signaling in biological photosynthetic systems. ßCar-EPOs and their degradation products are not markers of 1O2 and oxidative stress but of the overproduction of extremely hazardous chlorophyll triplets in photosystems. Hence, the chemical signaling of overexcitation of the photosynthetic apparatus is based on a 3chlorophyll-3ß-carotene relay, rather than on extremely short-lived 1O2.

The origin of the dark S1 state in carotenoids: a comprehensive model.

In carotenoids, by analogy to polyenes, the symmetry of the π-electron system is often invoked to explain their peculiar electronic features, in particular the inactivity of the S0 → S1 transition in one-photon excitation. In this review, we verify whether the molecular symmetry of carotenoids and symmetry of their π-electron system are supported in experimental and computational studies. We focus on spectroscopic techniques which are sensitive to the electron density distribution, including the X-ray crystallography, electronic absorption, two-photon techniques, circular dichroism, nuclear magnetic resonance, Stark and vibrational spectroscopies, and on this basis we seek for the origin of inactivity of the S1 state. We come across no experimental and computational evidence for the symmetry effects and the existence of symmetry restrictions on the electronic states of carotenoids. They do not possess an inversion centre and the C2h symmetry approximation of carotenoid structure is by no means justified. In effect, the application of symmetry rules (and notification) to the electronic states of carotenoids in this symmetry group may lead to a wrong interpretation of experimental data. This conclusion together with the results summarized in the review allows us to advance a consistent model that explains the inactivity of the S0 → S1 transition. Within this model, S1 is never accessible from S0 due to the negative synergy of (i) the contributions of double excitations of very low probability, which elevate S1 energy, and (ii) a non-verticality of the S0 → S1 transition, due to the breaking of Born-Oppenheimer approximation. Certainly, our simple model requires a further experimental and theoretical verification.

Side Methyl Groups Control the Conformation and Contribute to Symmetry Breaking of Isoprenoid Chromophores.

Ab initio DFT computations reveal that the essential structural and photophysical features of the conjugated π-electron system of retinal and carotenoids are dictated by "innocent" methyl substituents. These methyl groups shape the conformation and symmetry of the isoprenoid chromophores by causing a sigmoidal distortion of the polyene skeleton and increasing its flexibility, which facilitates fitting to their binding pockets in proteins. Comparison of in vacuo conformations of the chromophores with their native (protein-bound) conformations showed, surprisingly, that the peripheral groups and interactions with the protein environment are much less significant than the methyl side groups in tuning their structural features. The methyl side groups also contribute to a loss of symmetry elements specific to linear polyenes. In effect, the symmetry-imposed restrictions on the chromophore electronic properties are disabled, which is of tremendous relevance to their photophysics. This is evidenced by their non-negligible permanent dipole moments and by the simulated and experimentally measured circular dichroism spectra, which necessarily reflect the chirality of the conjugated π-electron system.

Effects of Molecular Symmetry on the Electronic Transitions in Carotenoids.

The aim of this work is the verification of symmetry effects on the electronic absorption spectra of carotenoids. The symmetry breaking in cis-ß-carotenes and in carotenoids with nonlinear π-electron system is of virtually no effect on the dark transitions in these pigments, in spite of the loss of the inversion center and evident changes in their electronic structure. In the cis isomers, the S2 state couples with the higher excited states and the extent of this coupling depends on the position of the cis bend. A confrontation of symmetry properties of carotenoids with their electronic absorption and IR and Raman spectra shows that they belong to the C1 or C2 but not the C2h symmetry group, as commonly assumed. In these realistic symmetries all the electronic transitions are symmetry-allowed and the absence of some transitions, such as the dark S0 → S1 transition, must have another physical origin. Most likely it is a severe deformation of the carotenoid molecule in the S1 state, unachievable directly from the ground state, which means that the Franck-Condon factors for a vertical S0 → S1 transition are negligible because the final state is massively displaced along the vibrational coordinates. The implications of our findings have an impact on the understanding of the photophysics and functioning of carotenoids.

High-pressure and theoretical studies reveal significant differences in the electronic structure and bonding of magnesium, zinc, and nickel ions in metalloporphyrinoids.

High pressure in combination with optical spectroscopy was used to gain insights into the interactions between Mg(2+), Zn(2+), and Ni(2+) ions and macrocyclic ligands of porphyrinoid type. In parallel, the central metal ion-macrocycle bonding was investigated using theoretical approaches. The symmetry properties of the orbitals participating in this bonding were analyzed, and pigment geometries and pressure/ligation effects were computed within DFT. Bacteriopheophytin a was applied as both a model chelator and a highly specific spectroscopic probe. The analysis of solvent and pressure effects on the spectral properties of the model Mg(2+), Zn(2+), and Ni(2+) complexes with bacteriopheophytin a shows that various chemical bonds are formed in the central pocket, depending on the valence configuration of the central metal ion. In addition, the character of this bonding depends on symmetry of the macrocyclic system. Since in most cases it is not coordinative bonding, these results challenge the conventional view of metal ion bonding in such complexes. In (labile) complexes with the main group metals, the metal ion-macrocycle interaction is mostly electrostatic. Significantly, water molecules are not preferred as a second axial ligand in such complexes, mainly due to the entropic constraints. The metal ions with a closed d shell may form (stable) complexes with the macrocycle via classical coordination bonds, engaging their p and s orbitals. Transition metals, due to the unfilled d shell, do form much more stable complexes, because of strong bonding via both coordination and covalent interactions. These conclusions are confirmed by DFT computations and theoretical considerations, which altogether provide the basis to propose a consistent and general mechanism of how the central metal ion and its interactions with the core nitrogens govern the physicochemical properties of metalloporphyrinoids.

Molecular symmetry determines the mechanism of a very efficient ultrafast excitation-to-heat conversion in Ni-substituted chlorophylls.

In the Ni-substituted chlorophylls, an ultrafast (<60 fs) deactivation channel is created, which is not present in Ni-porphyrins. This observation prompted us to investigate in detail the mechanism of excitation-to-heat conversion in Ni-substituted chlorophylls, experimentally, using time-resolved laser-induced optoacoustic spectroscopy, and theoretically, using group theory approach. The Ni-substituted chlorophylls show exceptional photostability and the optoacoustic measurements confirm the prompt and very efficient (100%) excitation-into-heat conversion in these complexes. Considering their excellent spectral properties and the loss-free excitation-into-heat conversion they are likely to become a new class of versatile photocalorimetric references. The curious features of the Ni-substituted chlorophylls originate from the symmetry of a ligand field created in the central cavity. The central N-Ni(2+) bonds, formed via the donation of two electrons from each of the sp(2) orbitals of two central nitrogens to an empty [Formula: see text] hybrid centered on Ni(2+), have a considerable covalent character. The extreme rate of excited state relaxation is then not due to a ladder of the metal centered d-states, often invoked in metalloporphyrins, but seems to result from a peculiar topology of the potential energy surface (a saddle-shaped crossing) due to the covalent character of the N-Ni(2+) bonds. This is confirmed by a strong 0→0 character of electronic transitions in these complexes indicating a similarity of their equilibrium geometries in the ground (S(0)) and the excited states (both Q(X) and Q(Y)). The excitation energy is very efficiently converted into molecular vibrations and dissipated as heat, involving the central Ni(2+). These Ni-substituted pigments pose a fine exemplification of symmetry control over properties of excited states of transition metal complexes.

Tuning the thermodynamics of association of transmembrane helices.

Modular photosynthetic LH1 complex is applied as a model system to investigate the thermodynamics of a self-assembling membrane protein and the effects of cosolvents and cofactor (carotenoid) on the process. Native chromophores of LH1, bacteriochlorophyll, and carotenoid are excellent intrinsic spectroscopic reporter molecules. Their presence allows us to follow the association of transmembrane helices of LH1, without the use of any external markers, by electronic absorption/emission and circular dichroism. Furthermore, the assembly correctness can be monitored by the intracomplex energy transfer. Both the cosolvent and carotenoid markedly affect DeltaH degrees and DeltaS degrees associated with the complex formation in detergent, but the driving force of the process remains almost constant due to an efficient enthalpy-entropy compensation in the system. In the absence of cosolvent and cofactor, the energy of interactions between transmembrane helices in LH1 equals -580 kJ/mol. DeltaH degrees drastically increases upon the addition of acetone (-1160 kJ/mol) and carotenoid (-1900 kJ/mol), whereas DeltaS degrees lowers from +1.5 kJ/mol.K to -0.4 kJ/mol.K and to -2.6 kJ/mol.K, respectively. The stabilization of the ensemble by cofactor seems to be due to the pi-pi stacking of aromatic residues of LH1 polypeptides with the carotenoid pi-electron system. The cosolvent, lowering the medium permittivity and thus enhancing helix-helix interactions, has an ordering effect on the system (DeltaS degrees<0). This effect of cosolvent on DeltaH degrees and DeltaS degrees of association of transmembrane helices is relevant for crystallization of membrane proteins, as it explains in thermodynamic terms the action of amphiphiles used for crystallization of membrane proteins in the micellar phase.

Excited-state double proton transfer in 1H-pyrazolo[3,4-b]quinoline dimers.

Pyrazoloquinolines are highly fluorescent, both in liquid solutions and in the solid state, which makes them good candidates for various optical devices. The aim of the current work is to understand the photochemical behavior of pyrazolo[3,4-b]quinoline (PQ), which is quite complicated since in n-alkane solvents PQ tends to form strong complexes with protic solvent constituents (often present as minor impurities), as well as dimers. Both types of H-bond complexes were studied systematically by temperature-dependent conventional absorption and fluorescence spectroscopy; the effect of protic solvent constituents was mimicked by varying the ethanol concentration in n-octane in the range from 0.0 to 0.8%. At room temperature the PQ:ethanol association constant was estimated at 80 M(-1) and the dimerization constant at 2 x 10(3) M(-1). Dimer formation is enhanced upon lowering the temperature in pure n-alkane down to 220 K, and the fluorescence is strongly reduced since the dimer is nonfluorescent. Surprisingly, when irradiating a frozen sample for several minutes at very low temperatures (<40 K), a narrow-banded Shpol'skii-type fluorescence spectrum gradually appears. To explain this unusual photochemical behavior, PQ and its deuterated analogue were studied using low-temperature absorption and fluorescence spectroscopy over the 300-5 K temperature range. In the case of normal (protonated) PQ, very fast excited-state intermolecular double proton transfer is responsible for the efficient quenching of PQ dimer fluorescence. Deuteration significantly slows down this proton transfer process, and in that case under cryogenic conditions a fluorescent dimer is observed. Photoirradiation under cryogenic conditions leads to molecular rearrangement of the dimers and the appearance of monomer spectra. For both H-PQ and D-PQ, these processes were found to be reversible. A simplified reaction scheme, in which the excited tautomeric dimer plays a crucial role, is presented to explain the observations.

Circular dichroism and absorption studies of (-)-2,2'-dimethyl-4,5-(1-naphthyl)-1,3-dioxolane in terms of vibronic coupling theory.

The absorption and circular dichroism (CD) spectra of (-)-2,2'-dimethyl-4,5-(1-naphthyl)-1,3-dioxolane (DND) were studied in the energy region 30,000 cm(-1) to 50,000 cm(-1). The DND ketal is treated as a naphthalene dimer and its spectra are interpreted in terms of a vibronic dimer model which includes the (1)L(a) and (1)B(b) states of the naphthalene chromophore. To fix the most stable conformation of DND molecule, the MNDO/AM1, RHF/6-31G, and SVWN5, BPW91 methods are employed with 6-31G and 6-31G(d',p') basis sets. All the methods are shown to yield the DND geometry that is entirely consistent with the CD and absorption spectra studied.