Amino acids L-phenylalanine and L-lysine involvement in trans and cis piperamides biosynthesis in two Piper species.

Several Piper species accumulate piperamides as secondary metabolites, and although they have relevant biological importance, many details of their biosynthetic pathways have not yet been described experimentally. Experiments involving enzymatic reactions and labeled precursor feeding were performed using the species Piper tuberculatum and Piper arboreum. The activities of the phenylalanine ammonia lyase (PAL) enzymes, which are involved in the general phenylpropanoid pathway, were monitored by the conversion of the amino acid L-phenylalanine to cinnamic acid. The activity of the 4-hydroxylase (C4H) enzyme was also observed in P. tuberculatum by converting cinnamic acid to p-coumaric acid. L-[UL-14C]-phenylalanine was fed into the leaves of P. tuberculatum and incorporated into piperine (1), 4,5-dihydropiperine (2), fagaramide (4), trans-piplartine (7), and dihydropiplartine (9). In P. arboreum, it was only incorporated into the piperamide 4,5-dihydropiperiline (3). L-[UL-14C]-lysine was successfully incorporated into the 4,5-dihydropiperine piperidine group (2), dihydropyridinone, and trans- (7) and cis-piplartine (8). These data corroborate the proposal of mixed biosynthetic origin of piperamides with the aromatic moiety originating from cinnamic acid (shikimic acid pathway) and key amide construction with amino acids as precursors.

Morphologic and Pathometric Characterization of the Asian Soybean Rust (Phakopsora pachyrhizi) in Santa Fe Province, Argentina.

The Asian soybean rust caused by the fungus Phakopsora pachyrhizi was cited for the first time in Argentina during the 2002-2003 growing season (3). During 2003-2004, the disease spread to other northern provinces and was also observed in north-central Santa Fe, the main producing soybean province of the country. Because the disease appeared at the end of the crop growing season (late March to early April) it had little or no impact on crop yields. The objectives of this study were to characterize morphologically and pathometrically the disease on soybean and check the presence of P. pachyrhizi on volunteer soybean plants that could eventually carry the disease to the next growing season. The study was conducted in the San Justo Department, Santa Fe Province (between 30 and 31°S latitude), where the presence of the soybean rust was molecularly confirmed by Sistema Nacional Vigilancia y Monitoreo (on-line publication at www.sinavimo.gov.ar ). Three field locations were sampled and identified as M1, M2, and M3. Transversal cuts of soybean leaves through rust lesions and histo-pathological staining were used for micromor-phologic characterization of the developmental stages of P. pachyrhizi. The disease incidence was estimated as the proportion of affected soybean plants and leaves. Average severity, expressed as the percentage of leaf area affected, including chlorosis, was measured on the terminal leaflet of leaves sampled from the lower one-third of the canopy. Three replicates of 10 plants, randomly chosen, were used. The number of uredinia per square centimeter and per lesion (symptomatic foliar area showing chlorosis and necrosis caused by the fungus) was measured on the undersides of the sampled leaflets at ×40 magnification (1). Typical signs and symptoms of P. pachyrhizi coexisted on soybean leaves with brown spot (Septoria glycines), downy mildew (Peronospora manshurica), anthracnose (Colletotrichum truncatum), and blight and leaf spot (Cercospora kikuchii) and also with bacteria (Pseudomonas and Xanthomonas spp.). Uredinia and telia of the P. pachyrhizi cycle were observed. Uredinia were also observed on soybean petioles. The average size of urediniospores (n = 60) was 23.3 × 16.6 µm. Telia were located adjacent to the uredinia. These telia were dark and crusty with four stacked layers of teliospores. Rust incidence in plants was 100% for the three fields, while the incidence in leaves was 100% for M1 and M2 and 60% for M3. Average disease severity was 50.3, 25.6, and 14.8% for M1, M2, and M3, respectively. The mean number of uredinia per square centimeter was 327, 179, and 177, for M1, M2, and M3, respectively. The number of uredinia per lesion ranged from 1 to 6. P. pachyrhizi was also found on volunteer soybean plants that emerged shortly after harvest. On 40 leaflets, the foliar incidence was 25%, showing one to two lesions with one to two uredinios per leaflet (2). The volunteer soybean plants could constitute a potential early source of inoculum. References: (1) M. Marcchetti et al. Phytopathology. 66:461, 1976. (2) R. Pioli et al. La roya asiática en Santa. Fe, Arg. XII Cong. AAPRESID, II Sem. Internac. Soja, Arg. 283-290, 2004. (3) R. L. Rossi. Plant Dis. 87:102, 2003.

Recent Outbreak of Soybean Sudden Death Syndrome Caused by Fusarium virguliforme and F. tucumaniae in Argentina.

Sudden death syndrome (SDS) of soybean was detected initially in Argentina during 1991-1992 in the Pampas Region and 1992-1993 in the Northwest Region. The first report of the fulfillment of Koch's postulates of SDS caused by Fusarium solani f. sp. glycines in Argentina was published in 2003 (3). Subsequently, analyses have shown that F. solani f. sp. glycines represents several morphologically and phylogenetically distinct species, including F. tucumaniae in Argentina and F. virguliforme in the United States (1). Isolations were made from plants that exhibited typical SDS symptoms (interveinal foliar chlorosis and necrosis leading to defoliation of the leaflets but not the petioles) from fields in Santa Fe and Buenos Aires provinces in 2001, 2002, and 2003. To determine which species are responsible for SDS in Argentina, cultures of eight slow growing isolates that developed bluish pigmentation and produced abundant macroconidia in sporodochia on potato dextrose agar were subjected to morphological and molecular phylogenetic analyses and pathogenicity tests. Morphological analyses demonstrated that three of the isolates were F. virguliforme and five were F. tucumaniae. Isolates of F. tucumaniae produced long and narrow sporodochial conidia while F. virguliforme produced diagnostic comma-shaped conidia. Molecular phylogenetic analyses of DNA sequences from multiple loci confirmed morphology-based identifications and showed that the soybean SDS pathogen in the United States, F. virguliforme, was also present in Argentina. To our knowledge, this is the first report of F. virguliforme in Argentina and of this pathogen outside the United States. Five isolates of F. tucumaniae and three isolates of F. virguliforme were used for pathogenicity tests. F. virguliforme isolate 171 provided by J. Rupe (University of Arkansas, Fayetteville) was used as a positive control. Soybean cultivars Ripley, RA 702, Pioneer 9492RR, Spencer, and A-6445RG were inoculated with each of the isolates tested in a greenhouse assay using soil infestation and toothpick methods (2). All eight isolates produced typical foliar SDS symptoms 15 to 25 days after inoculation. Severity of foliar symptoms averaged 3.3 for F. virguliforme, 2.6 for F. tucumaniae, and 3.3 for the positive control using a disease severity scale in which 1 = no symptoms and 5 = severely infected or dead plants. Under these conditions, F. virguliforme appeared to be more virulent than F tucumaniae. Noninoculated plants remained symptomless. Koch's postulates were confirmed with soybean cultivars RA 702 and A6445RG. Isolates recovered from symptomatic plants inoculated by the soil infestation and toothpick methods were identical to those used to inoculate the plant. Strains were recovered at frequencies of 100 and 60% from plants inoculated by the toothpick and soil infestation methods, respectively. To our knowledge, this is the first report of the fulfillment of Koch's postulates for F. tucumaniae and F. virguliforme in Argentina. References: (1) T. Aoki et al. Mycologia 95:660, 2003. (2) K. W. Roy et al. Plant Dis. 81:1100, 1997 (3) M. Scandiani et al. Plant Dis. 87:447, 2003.

First Report of Pathogenic Association Between Fusarium graminearum and Soybean.

Fusarium graminearum, a pathogen of wheat and corn, was reported recently as a saprophytic fungus colonizing soybean (Glycine max L. Merr.) fruits and seeds at R7 in Argentina (2). To evaluate the capacity of F. graminearum obtained from stem and seeds of symptomatic soybean plants that cause disease on soybean seedlings, isolates were obtained during the 2001 to 2002 growing season from: (i) the basal one-third of stems from field-grown soybean plants, collected at R5, with light brown external and internal discoloration and leaves with interveinal chlorosis; and (ii) soybean seeds with pink tegument. The pathogen was isolated on potato glucose agar acidified with 0.2% lactic acid (PGAA). Isolates were identified as F. graminearum on the basis of growth rate and pigmentation of colonies on PGAA, lack of microconidia (1), and morphology and size of typical macroconidia in sporodochia developed on Spezieller Nährstoffarmer Agar (3). Isolates of F. graminearum, CE135 and CE136 (from wheat) and CE137 (from corn) deposited in the Centro de Referencia en Micología (CEREMIC), Fac. Farmacia y Bioquímica, UNR, Argentina, were used as references in identifying the soybean isolates. Plants (14-day-old) were inoculated separately with stem and seed isolates in the greenhouse at 26 ± 2 and 20 ± 2°C day/night temperature by inserting a piece of mycelium into a wound made with a scalpel in the hypocotyl. A completely randomized block design (RCB) was utilized with four replicate pots with four plants per pot. Plants wounded but without mycelium served as controls. This test was conducted twice (experiments 1 and 2). Another test was completed by burying a thin layer of wheat caryopsis colonized by fungal mycelium of the stem isolate CE170 in the soil of pots. Plants in pots with soil without inoculum served as controls (4). The experiment was conducted twice (experiments 3 and 4) in an RCB with five replications, four plants per replication. The progress of symptoms in experiments 1 and 2 were stem with light brown discoloration around the inoculation point that extended progressively along the stem, interveinal chlorosis or loss of turgence of unifoliate leaves, and interveinal chlorosis of trifoliate leaves followed by plant wilting and death. Twenty-one days after inoculation, average percentages of dead plants (%DP) was 42 and 21% for stem and seed isolates, respectively. For experiments 3 and 4, %DP was 56%, 45 days after emergence. These plants had roots with light brown, necrotic areas. Control plants remained healthy. The pathogen was reisolated from the stem (100%) and root (57%) tissues of symptomatic plants but not from similar tissues of control plants. To our knowledge, this is the first report of a pathogenic relationship between F. graminearum and soybean. References: (1) P. E. Nelson et al. Fusarium species: An Illustrated Manual for Identification. The Pennsylvania State University Press, University Park, PA, 1983. (2) R.N. Pioli et al. Fitopatología 35(2):111, 2000. (3) B. A. Summerell et al. Plant Dis. 87:117, 2003. (4) C. E. Windels. Fusarium. Pages 115-128 in: Methods for Research on Soilborne Phytopathogenic Fungi. L. L. Singleton, J. D. Mihail, and C. M. Rush, eds. The American Phytopathological Society, St. Paul, MN, 1992.

Clinical variables related to suicide attempts in schizophrenic patients: a retrospective study.

In this study, we investigated the possible association between clinical or pharmacological variables and suicidal behavior in a sample of chronic schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder patients. One hundred and three patients with a DSM-III-R diagnosis of chronic schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder were studied. The sample was subdivided in two subsamples according to the presence/absence of suicidal attempts lifetime. The main demographic and clinical variables retrospectively collected were analyzed and compared between the two groups. Attempters had a significantly higher rate of nicotine abuse or dependence (chi-square=3.900, df=1, p<0.05, Odds Ratio (O.R.)=3.4), were more likely to have or have had lifetime major depressive episodes (chi-square=10.258, df=1, p<0.002, O.R.=6.5), were more likely to have a duration of untreated psychosis (DUP) > or =1 year (chi-square=6.228, df=1, p<0.02, O.R.=12.5), and were more frequently prescribed typical antipsychotics (chi-square=3.979, df=1, p<0.05, O.R.=6.5) than patients without suicidal attempts lifetime. Further investigations on larger samples and with prospective designs are warranted, particularly with respect to the role of early intervention and atypical antipsychotic treatment in reducing suicide risk in schizophrenic patients.

Levosulpiride in somatoform disorders: A double-blind, placebo-controlled cross-over study.

Reliable data on the psychopharmacotherapy of somatoform disorders (SDs) are scanty because of patients' poor psychopathological awareness and compliance, the need for combination treatment, and the lack of suitable instruments for clinical diagnosis and assessment. The aim of the present study was to investigate the efficacy and tolerability of low doses of levosulpiride in the treatment of SDs. Seventy-four patients with SDs diagnosed according to ICD-10 and DSM-IIIR criteria by means of the Comprehensive International Schedule for Somatoform Disorders-Somatoform Disorders Schedule (CISSD-SDS) were treated for 4 weeks either with levosulpiride (50 mg b.i.d.) or placebo, under double-blind, cross-over conditions. The clinical evaluation was performed using CISSD-SDS. Side-effects were evaluated using the Simpson and Angus Extrapyramidal Side Effects Scale (EPSE) and specific check-lists for anticholinergic and endocrine side effects. Levosulpiride significantly reduced the number of SD symptoms compared to placebo ( P =0.007) after 4 weeks of treatment. Eighty per cent of positive responses were observed during treatment with levosulpiride in the placebo-levosulpiride sequence; on the other hand, only 44% of positive responses were found during treatment with active compound in the levosulpiride-placebo sequence ( P <0.002). Levosulpiride also determined a more evident reduction of the total number of SD symptoms compared to placebo ( P <0.001). There were no differences in endocrine and anticholinergic side effects between levosulpiride and placebo. In the levosulpiride group, a higher percentage of patients (13.4 vs. 2.8%; P =0.029) showed signs of extrapyramidal system involvement compared to placebo. Levosulpiride appears to be a well-tolerated and effective drug for the treatment for SDs.

First Report of Koch's Postulates Completion of Sudden Death Syndrome of Soybean in Argentina.

Foliage symptoms on soybean resembling those of sudden death syndrome were detected in Argentina during 1991 and 1992 in the Pampas Region and during 1992 and 1993 in the Northwest Region. Isolations were made in 1999, 2000, and 2001 from soybean plants (Glycine max (L.) Merr.) showing these symptoms. Five isolates of fungi obtained from taproot tissue and blue sporulation on taproot exteriors were selected for further evaluation. These isolates were plated on potato dextrose agar supplemented with streptomycin (PDAS). Based on the spore morphology, colony growth rate, morphology and pigmentation on PDAS, and lack of microconidia (1) five isolates were identified as Fusarium solani f. sp. glycines. Soybean cvs. Ripley, Spencer, Pioneer 9492RR, and A6445 RG were inoculated in greenhouse tests with each of the isolates using toothpick and soil infestation methods for a total of six experiments. Isolate 171 provided by J. Rupe (University of Arkansas, Fayetteville) was tested as a positive control. Foliar symptoms typical of sudden death syndrome and similar to those in the field were observed 14 and 25 days, respectively, after inoculations using the toothpick and soil infestation methods. Lesions produced on leaves averaged 3.6 for all five isolates and 4 for the reference strain using a disease severity scale where: 1 = no symptoms; 2 = slight symptom development with mottling and mosaic on leaves (1 to 20% foliage affected); 3 = moderate symptom development with interveinal chlorosis and necrosis on foliage (21 to 50% foliage affected); 4 = heavy symptom development with interveinal chlorosis and necrosis (51 to 80% foliage affected); and 5 = severe interveinal chlorosis and necrosis (81 to 100% foliage affected). Noninoculated controls were symptomless. Differences in virulence were observed among the isolates. Based on disease symptoms in the greenhouse and cultural morphology on PDAS, the isolates were classified as Fusarium solani f. sp. glycines. Isolates recovered from symptomatic plants resembled Fusarium solani f. sp. glycines on PDAS and peptone/p-chloro-nitrobenzene agar amended with streptomycin, confirming Koch's postulates. Fusarium solani f. sp. glycines was recovered from 60% of inoculated plants. Reference: (1) K. W. Roy et al. Plant Dis. 81:1100,1997.

Recent Outbreak of Soybean Stem Canker Caused by Diaporthe phaseolorum var. caulivora in the Main Soybean-Producing Region of Argentina.

The first report of soybean stem canker (SSC) caused by Diaporthe phaseolorum var. caulivora in South America was published in 2001, and was based on an isolate obtained in 1999 at Oliveros, Santa Fe (32°33'S, 60°51'W), Argentina (2). During the 2001 to 2002 growing season, isolates of D. phaseolorum var. caulivora were obtained from stems of field-grown soybeans (Glycine max L.) exhibiting SSC symptoms. Isolates were collected in three localities of the main soybean-producing region of Argentina: Marcos Juárez, Córdoba (32°66'S, 62°10'W); Salto, Buenos Aires (34°20'S, 60°33'W); and Diego de Alvear, Santa Fe (34°21'S, 62°10'W), and disease incidence in the fields was 10 to 60%, 5 to 15%, and 10 to 20%, respectively. The pathogen was isolated on potato glucose agar acidified with 0.2% lactic acid cultured in the dark at 25 ± 1°C. White colonies with compact and tufted mycelium were produced and turned yellow and light tan after 6 days. Appressed and fluffy mycelia were observed in old cultures. Stromata (2 mm diameter) were produced but pycnidia were not detected. After 20 days in culture at 25 ± 1°C under a 12-h light and 12-h dark regime, clustered perithecia developed on stem segments. For each isolate, 10 perithecia, 90 asci, and 30 bicellular, biguttulate ascospores were measured. Averages of asci length and width were 28.3 ± 2.3 and 5.9 ± 0.7 µm, respectively. Averages of ascospores mean length and width were 8.4 ± 0.6 and 2.5 ± 0.4 µm, respectively. These measures were similar to the measures obtained previously (2). Based on these features, the new isolates were classified as D. phaseolorum var. caulivora (Athow & Caldwell). Clustered perithecia, smaller asci and ascospores, and the development of fluffy mycelia with age were the main characteristics that distinguished D. phaseolorum var. caulivora from D. phaseolorum var. meridionalis (1). Pathogenicity trials were performed on cvs. Tracy M, Crockett, Hutchenson, and RA 702 in the greenhouse by placing a small amount of mycelium in soybean seedling hypocotyls wounds made with a scalpel. The pathogen was reisolated from stem portions of the symptomatic plants. Control plants remained healthy. The results reported here show that D. phaseolorum var. caulivora is widely disseminated in the main soybean-producing region of Argentina, where it coexists with D. phaseolorum var. meridionalis (2). The coexistence of both varieties indicates pathogen variability in the region is higher than previously recognized. References: (1) R. N. Pioli et al. Plant Dis. 83:1071, 1999. (2) R. N. Pioli et al. Plant Dis. 85:95, 2001.

Haptoglobin polymorphism and schizophrenia: genetic variation on chromosome 16.

Recently, it was shown that schizophrenia is accompanied by an activation of the inflammatory response system with signs of an acute phase response, such as increased plasma haptoglobin (Hp) concentrations. Hp is characterized by a molecular variation with three known phenotypes, i.e. Hp 1-1, Hp 2-1 and Hp 2-2. The aim of the present study was to examine Hp phenotypic and genotypic frequencies in schizophrenic patients. Hp phenotyping was carried out in 98 Northwestern Italian schizophrenic patients and the phenotypic and genotypic distributions were compared with the distributions established in the Northwestern Italian population. Plasma Hp concentrations were determined by means of a laser nephelometric method. The allele frequency of the Hp phenotypes in schizophrenia, i.e. Hp 1-1 (9.2%), Hp 2-1 (38.8%) and Hp 2-2 (52.0%), was significantly different from that in the Northwestern Italian population, i.e. Hp 1-1 (17.0%), Hp 2-1 (51.3%) and Hp 2-2 (38.5%). The frequency of the Hp-2 gene was significantly higher in schizophrenic patients (71.7%) as compared with the observed frequency in the Northwestern Italian population (62.5%). The alterations in Hp phenotypic and genotypic distribution were more pronounced in the schizo-affective, disorganized, undifferentiated and residual schizophrenic patients than in paranoid schizophrenic patients. More than a third (35.7%) of the schizophrenic patients showed plasma Hp concentrations which were higher than the upper limits of normality. Schizophrenia is accompanied by an altered distribution of the Hp phenotypes and genotypes, suggesting that genetic variation on chromosome 16 may be associated with schizophrenia.

The cAMP-dependent protein kinase substrate Rap1 in platelets from patients with obsessive compulsive disorder or schizophrenia.

Previous studies have reported that the cAMP-dependent protein kinase and one of its substrates, namely Rap1, are altered in patients with affective disorders. Abnormalities in the cAMP-dependent protein kinase have also been reported in platelets of patients with obsessive compulsive disorder and schizophrenia. However, it remains to be determined whether abnormalities in Rap1 are specifically related to affective disorders or may also be present in schizophrenia and obsessive compulsive disorder. Thus, we investigated Rap1 in platelets from 12 drug-free patients with obsessive compulsive disorder, ten drug-free patients with schizophrenia, and 20 healthy subjects. While no difference was observed in the levels of Rap1 between groups, the phosphorylation state of Rap1 was significantly lower in patients with obsessive compulsive disorder than in schizophrenic patients and controls. These data further support the idea that abnormalities of cAMP signalling pathway could be associated, albeit in a somewhat different way, with several psychiatric disorders.

Association between -G308A tumor necrosis factor alpha gene polymorphism and schizophrenia.

Dysregulation of the inflammatory response system has been linked to pathophysiology of schizophrenia. Evidence of immune activation has derived from the detection of abnormal levels of proinflammatory cytokines and their receptors in peripheral blood and cerebrospinal fluid from schizophrenic patients. Cytokines are involved in normal CNS development as well as in the pathogenesis of many neuro-psychiatric disorders, acting directly on neural cells or modulating neurotransmitter and neuropeptide systems. In particular tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFalpha), depending on its concentration, can exert both neurotrophic and neurotoxic effects and influence neural cell growth and proliferation. Moreover, TNFalpha gene is located on the small arm of chromosome 6 (6p21.1-21.3), a locus associated with genetic susceptibility to schizophrenia. We studied the distribution of -G308A TNFalpha gene polymorphism in 84 schizophrenic patients and in 138 healthy volunteers. This biallelic base exchange polymorphism directly affects TNFalpha plasma levels. Frequency of the TNF2(A) allele is significantly increased in schizophrenic patients as compared to controls (P = 0.0042). Genotype distribution is also significantly different (P = 0.0024). TNF2 homozygotes are represented only in the patient group (P = 0.002). These data suggest a potential role of TNFalpha as a candidate gene for susceptibility to schizophrenia and suggest that immune dysregulation in schizophrenic patients could also have a genetic component.

First Report of Soybean Stem Canker Caused by Diaporthe phaseolorum var. caulivora in Argentina.

A soybean stem canker (SSC) outbreak caused by Diaporthe phaseolorum (Cooke & Ellis) Sacc. var. meridionalis Fernández was reported in Santa Fe, Argentina, in 1997 (3). In 1999 an isolate, which was morphologically distinct from D. phaseolorum var. meridionalis, was obtained from stems of field-grown soybean plants exhibiting SSC symptoms, at Oliveros, Santa Fe, Argentina (Lat. 32° 33'S, Lon. 60° 51'W). Disease incidence was 76% in the field where samples were collected. The pathogen was isolated in darkness at 25°C on potatoglucose agar acidified with 0.2% lactic acid (3). The isolate produced white colonies with compact and tufted mycelium that changed to yellow and light tan with age. Stromata and pycnidia were not produced. After 35 days in culture, clustered perithecia were frequently observed on stem segments. Fifty asci, five from each of 10 perithecia, and bicellular, biguttulated ascospores were measured. Ascus mean length was 26.9 ± 2.5 µm and width was 5.3 ± 0.5 µm; ascospore mean length was 8.3 ± 0.6 µm and width was 2.6 ± 0.1µm. Based on these features, the new isolate was classified as D. phaseolorum var. caulivora Athou & Caldwell (1). To further compare the new isolate with previous identified ones, a principal component analysis (PCA, SAS Systems) was performed using seven isolates of D. phaseolorum var. meridionalis, three isolates of D. phaseolorum var. sojae, and two isolates of Phomopsis longicolla. Seventeen morphological characters, all related with the color and texture of the colonies, the presence and shape of the pycnidia and conidia, the presence and type of stromata and perithecia, and the length of the asci, were compared. According to the PCA analysis, the principal characters that discriminated SSC producing isolates (D. phaseolorum var. meridionalis and D. phaseolorum var. caulivora) from non-SSC producing ones (D. phaseolorum var. sojae and P. longicolla) were the development of perithecia (r = 0.98) and low frequency stromata (r = 0.98) in D. phaseolorum var. meridionalis and D. phaseolorum var. caulivora isolates. The principal components that discriminated SSC producing isolates were the more compact and tufted aspect of the mycelia (r = 0.95) and the shorter length of the asci (r = 0.83) in D. phaseolorum var. caulivora compared with D. phaseolorum var. meridionalis. Pathogenicity trials were performed under greenhouse conditions by inoculating D. phaseolorum var. caulivora mycelia in hypocotyls of soybean seedlings by the toothpick method (2). Typical SSC symptoms were observed on susceptible plants and the pathogen was re-isolated and identified from stem portions of the first internode above the inoculation point. Pathogenicity trials were repeated twice with similar results. This is the first report of D. phaseolorum var. caulivora in Argentina and, as far as we know, in all of South America. References: (1) F. A. Fernández et al. 1999. Stem canker. Pages 32-35 in: Compendium of Soybean Diseases, 4th ed. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. (2) B. L. Keeling. Phytopathology 72:807-809, 1982. (3) R. N. Pioli et al. Plant Dis. 81:1215, 1997.

Attitude towards psychiatric patients: a pilot study in a northern Italian town.

The stigmatisation of the psychiatric patient is still a strong barrier to the integration process of these subjects in our society. Therefore, it is necessary to identify what types of prejudices exist and the types of variables with which they are linked, in order to plan strategies to reduce them. In this exploratory study we administered a semi-structured interview to 303 subjects in order to examine the relationships between social attitudes towards mental disorders and some social demographic variables, the information about mental disorders and the previous 'contacts' with psychiatric patients. The data analysis shows that there is a relationship between knowledge of psychiatric patients and a more positive attitude towards them (i.e., less fear, more integration and work opportunities). This study is to be considered preliminary as far as people's attitudes towards psychiatric patients are concerned. This result encourages the planning and implementation of sensitisation and information programs concerning mental disorders, in the sense that increasing the knowledge of mental disorders could lead to significant achievements in the important fight against the stigma surrounding psychiatric patients.

Abnormal levels of cAMP-dependent protein kinase regulatory subunits in platelets from schizophrenic patients.

Abnormalities in the cAMP-dependent protein kinase (PKA), a central component of cAMP signaling, have been reported in several psychiatric disorders. Previous studies showed cAMP signaling alterations in schizophrenic patients but less is known about the involvement of PKA in such disorder. Therefore, we investigated the PKA subunits by Western blot analysis in platelets from 12 patients with schizophrenia and 13 controls. The results showed that the immunolabeling of the PKA regulatory subunits type I (RI) and type II (RII) was significantly reduced in patients compared with controls whereas no differences were observed in the catalytic (C) subunit of the enzyme. These preliminary data suggest that schizophrenic patients have altered PKA levels, thus supporting that dysfunctions in the components of cAMP signaling may contribute to the pathophysiology of schizophrenia.

Lower serum vitamin E concentrations in major depression. Another marker of lowered antioxidant defenses in that illness.

OBJECTIVE: Major depression is associated with defective antioxidant defenses. Vitamin E is the major fat soluble antioxidant in the body. The aim of the present study is to examine serum vitamin E concentrations in major depressed patients versus normal volunteers. METHOD: Serum vitamin E concentrations were measured in 26 healthy volunteers and 42 major depressed patients by means of HPLC. Since vitamin E is a fat soluble vitamin, and serum vitamin E concentrations are strongly related to these of low-density-lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) and triglycerides, we have adjusted the results for possible differences in these lipids. The numbers of peripheral blood leukocytes were measured. RESULTS: Patients with major depression had significantly lower serum vitamin E concentrations than healthy controls. The area under the ROC (receiver operating characteristics) curve was 83%. There were significant and negative correlations between serum vitamin E and number of total leukocytes and neutrophils. CONCLUSIONS: Major depression is accompanied by significantly lower serum vitamin E concentrations, suggesting lower antioxidant defenses against lipid peroxidation. The results could, in part, explain previous findings, which suggest increased lipid peroxidation in major depression.

Development, reliability and acceptability of a new version of the DSM-IV Social and Occupational Functioning Assessment Scale (SOFAS) to assess routine social functioning.

OBJECTIVE: Development of a scale to assess patients' social functioning, the Personal and Social Performance scale (PSP). METHOD: PSP has been developed through focus groups and reliability studies on the basis of the social functioning component of the DSM-IV Social and Occupational Functioning Assessment Scale (SOFAS). The last reliability study was carried out by 39 workers with different professional roles on a sample of 61 psychiatric patients admitted to the rehabilitation unit. Each patient was rated independently on the scale by the two workers who knew them best. RESULTS: The PSP is a 100-point single-item rating scale, subdivided into 10 equal intervals. The ratings are based mainly on the assessment of patient's functioning in four main areas: 1) socially useful activities; 2) personal and social relationships; 3) self-care; and 4) disturbing and aggressive behaviours. Operational criteria to rate the levels of disabilities have been defined for the above-mentioned areas. Excellent inter-rater reliability was also obtained in less educated workers. CONCLUSION: Compared to SOFAS, PSP has better face validity and psychometric properties. It was found to be an acceptable, quick and valid measure of patients' personal and social functioning.

Effects of atypical antipsychotics on the inflammatory response system in schizophrenic patients resistant to treatment with typical neuroleptics.

There is now some evidence that schizophrenia may be accompanied by an activation of the inflammatory response system (IRS) and that typical antipsychotics may suppress some signs of IRS activation in that illness. This study was carried out to examine (i) the serum concentrations of interleukin-6 (IL-6), IL-6 receptor (IL-6R), IL-1R antagonist (IL-1RA) and Clara Cell protein (CC16), an endogenous anticytokine, in nonresponders to treatment with typical neuroleptics and (ii) the effects of atypical antipsychotics on the above IRS variables. The above parameters were determined in 17 patients with treatment-resistant schizophrenia (TRS) to treatment with neuroleptics and in seven normal volunteers and 14 schizophrenic patients who had a good response to treatment with antipsychotic agents. Patients with TRS had repeated measurements of the IRS variables before and 2 and 4 months after treatment with atypical antipsychotics. Serum IL-6 was significantly higher in schizophrenic patients, irrespective of their response to typical antipsychotics, than in normal controls. Serum IL-1RA was significantly higher in the TRS patients than in controls, whereas responders took up an intermediate position. The serum concentrations of CC16 were significantly lower after treatment with atypical antipsychotics during 4 months than before treatment. It is concluded that (i) schizophrenia and, in particular, TRS is characterized by an activation of the monocytic arm of cell-mediated immunity and (ii) atypical antipsychotics may decrease the anti-inflammatory capacity of the serum in TRS patients.

Venlafaxine in social phobia: a study in selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor non-responders.

The study aimed to evaluate the clinical response to venlafaxine in social phobia in 12 patients who were non-responders to selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors, and to assess how the response could be influenced by the comorbidity in Axis II with avoidant personality disorder (APD). The duration of the study was of 15 weeks using open flexible doses regimen in individuals with or without concomitant APD. The venlafaxine dose ranged from 112.5 mg/day to 187.5 mg/day. Venlafaxine improves social phobia and/or APD symptomatology, as demonstrated by decreasing Liebowitz Social Anxiety Scale total scores (P < 0.05). In fact, venlafaxine significantly reduced the avoidant behaviour and specific sociophobic aspects, while notably improving the depression dimension and the basic anxiety symptoms. With regard to tolerability, the profile of venlafaxine was satisfactory with the main side-effects being nausea, headache and anxiety.

In vitro immunoregulatory effects of lithium in healthy volunteers.

RATIONALE: There is now some evidence that major depression is associated with activation of the inflammatory response system (IRS). Lithium is effective in the treatment and prophylaxis of major depression and shows significant immunoregulatory functions. OBJECTIVE: The aims of the present study were to examine the in vitro effects of lithium on the unstimulated and lipolysaccharide (LPS) + phytohemagglutinin (PHA)-induced production of proinflammatory cytokines, such as interleukin-6 (IL-6), IL-8, tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNFalpha) and interferon-gamma (IFNgamma), and negative immunoregulatory cytokines or proteins, such as IL-10 and the IL-1 receptor antagonist (IL-1RA). METHODS: The in vitro effects of lithium carbonate at low (10(-4) M and 10(-5) M) and therapeutic (10(-3) M) concentrations on the above cytokines and the IL-1RA were examined in nine healthy volunteers on whole blood supernatant cultured for 72 h. RESULTS: Lithium (10(-3) M) in the presence of LPS+PHA significantly increased the stimulated production of IFNgamma, IL-8, TNFalpha, IL-1RA and IL-10. Lithium (10(-3) M) significantly increased the unstimulated production of IL-8 and IL-10. CONCLUSIONS: The results suggest that lithium has significant immunoregulatory effects by increasing the production of both proinflammatory cytokines (IFNgamma, TNFalpha and IL-8) and negative immunoregulatory cytokines or proteins (IL-10 and the IL-1RA).