ABSTRACT
The heat shock response is a highly conserved process essential for surviving environmental stress, including extremes of temperature. To investigate whether heat shock has an impact on intracellular Zn(2+) homeostasis, cells were subjected to heat shock, and subsequently the intracellular free zinc concentration was investigated. Sublethal heat shock induced a temperature-dependent and transient intracellular Zn(2+) release that was repeatable after 24 h. The free zinc was localized in round-shaped nuclear bodies identified as nucleoli. Metallothionein, the main cellular zinc storing protein, was found to be not functionally essential for this heat-shock-induced effect. No significant oxidative stress within the cells was detected after heat shock. Cold shock and subsequent rewarming did not result in disturbed intracellular zinc homeostasis. These results show that heat shock and cold shock differ with respect to intracellular Zn(2+) release. A role for zinc as signaling ion during fever is conceivable.
Subject(s)
Cold Temperature , Endothelial Cells/metabolism , Fibroblasts/metabolism , Heat-Shock Response , Metallothionein/metabolism , Zinc/metabolism , Active Transport, Cell Nucleus , Animals , Cell Nucleolus/metabolism , Cell Survival , Cells, Cultured , Endothelial Cells/pathology , Fibroblasts/pathology , Homeostasis , Metallothionein/deficiency , Metallothionein/genetics , Mice , Mice, Inbred C57BL , Mice, Knockout , Rats , Rats, Wistar , Time FactorsABSTRACT
Silver compounds used as topical antimicrobial agents are known to exert toxic effects on skin cells. The aim of this study was to investigate whether the toxicity of silver ions, in analogy to other transition metal ions, depends on pro-oxidant effects. We treated human skin fibroblasts with concentrations of AgNO(3) not affecting cell proliferation, mitochondrial activity, or cell viability and found that Ag(+) strongly increases the production of reactive oxygen species, including superoxide anion radicals. These effects correspond to a strong decrease in intracellular reduced glutathione and to an increased susceptibility to H(2)O(2)-induced cell death. In addition, AgNO(3) down-regulates the expression of antioxidant genes such as the transcription factor Nrf2 and its target gene glutamate-cysteine ligase catalytic subunit. Furthermore Ag(+) induces a transient intracellular zinc release and increases the mRNA and protein expression of the zinc-binding protein metallothionein by activating the metal-responsive transcription factor 1, as verified by RNA interference. In conclusion, we show for the first time that Ag(+) induces oxidative stress and affects intracellular zinc homeostasis in human skin fibroblasts. The understanding of the mechanism involved in silver toxicity might contribute to new strategies for managing the therapy of skin infections.
Subject(s)
Anti-Infective Agents, Local/pharmacology , Fibroblasts/metabolism , Oxidative Stress , Silver Nitrate/pharmacology , Zinc/metabolism , Adult , Apoptosis/drug effects , Cell Proliferation/drug effects , Cells, Cultured , DNA-Binding Proteins/genetics , DNA-Binding Proteins/metabolism , Female , Fibroblasts/drug effects , Fibroblasts/pathology , Gene Expression Regulation , Glutamate-Cysteine Ligase/genetics , Glutamate-Cysteine Ligase/metabolism , Glutathione/metabolism , Humans , Infections/drug therapy , Ions , Metallothionein/biosynthesis , Middle Aged , NF-E2-Related Factor 2/biosynthesis , NF-E2-Related Factor 2/genetics , RNA, Small Interfering/genetics , Skin/pathology , Transcription Factors/genetics , Transcription Factors/metabolism , Transcription Factor MTF-1ABSTRACT
Astrocyte swelling is observed in different types of brain injury including hepatic encephalopathy (HE). This study investigates the role of astrocyte swelling on Zn2+ homeostasis in hypoosmotically treated astrocytes by using the Zn2+ indicators Newport-Green, Zinquin, and RhodZin-3. Hypoosmolarity (205 mosmol/L) led to a persistent increase of the intracellular "free" Zn2+ concentration [Zn2+](i) within 15 min, which was reversible after reinstitution of normoosmolarity (305 mosmol/L). The hypoosmotic [Zn2+](i) increase was abolished in the presence of the Zn2+ chelator TPEN, the NMDA receptor antagonists MK-801 and AP5, the antioxidant epigallocatechin gallate, and the nitric oxide synthase inhibitors L-NMMA and TRIM. Hypoosmolarity triggered nuclear accumulation of the metal response element-binding transcription factor MTF-1 and the specificity protein Sp1 and expression of the mRNAs encoding metallothionein and the Sp1-regulated peripheral-type benzodiazepine receptor (PBR). These effects were abolished by the Zn2+ chelator TPEN. The data suggest that astrocyte swelling affects gene expression by modulation of [Zn2+](i). Whereas Zn2+-dependent upregulation of metallothionein may help to counteract excessive astrocyte swelling and production of reactive oxygen and nitrogen oxide species, stimulation of PBR expression may augment HE development.
Subject(s)
Astrocytes/cytology , Astrocytes/physiology , Cell Size , Homeostasis/physiology , Zinc/physiology , Animals , Animals, Newborn , Cells, Cultured , Intracellular Fluid/metabolism , Intracellular Fluid/physiology , Osmolar Concentration , Osmotic Pressure/physiology , Rats , Rats, WistarABSTRACT
Changes of the redox balance in cells alter the availability of intracellular free Zn(2+). Here, cells were exposed to ultraviolet (UV)-A, UV-B, or infrared (IR)-A light irradiation, and the intracellular free zinc pool was monitored. Under sublethal conditions only UV-A irradiation resulted in a transient cytoplasmic and nuclear increase of intracellular free Zn(2+). Likewise, tert-butyl hydroperoxide and singlet oxygen, but not H(2)O(2) or intracellular generation of O(2)(*-) by redox cyclers, mimicked the effects of UV-A irradiation, while disulfide stress by diamide only led to a transient cytoplasmic zinc release. These results show that only certain types of subtoxic cellular stress massively disturb the zinc homeostasis in cells.
