Serologic Investigation on Tick-Borne Encephalitis Virus, Kemerovo Virus and Tribec Virus Infections in Wild Birds.

The present study reports on serosurvey on the tick-borne encephalitis virus European subtype (TBEV; genus Flavivirus), and the tick-borne Kemerovo (KEMV) and Tribec (TRBV) orbivirus (genus Orbivirus) infections in tick-infested and non-infested birds. No virus RNA was detected in the blood clots. Birds were infested mostly by Ixodes ricinus, but Haemaphysalis concinna and I. frontalis were observed too. TBEV, KEMV and TRBV neutralising antibodies (NAb) were detected in the screening microtitration neutralisation test (µVNT). Seropositive samples were further examined in simultaneous µVNT to distinguish TBEV infection from WNV and USUV. KEMV and TRBV infections were also further examined by µVNT against each other. The demonstrated results point to increased TBEV and TRBV seroprevalence in birds over the past several years. This is the first study on KEMV infection in the Slovak bird population, and seropositive juvenile birds suggest its occurrence in a new geographic area. The results indicate the significance of tick infestation rates, seropositivity and specific NAb titre. The reservoir role of birds for TBEV, KEMV and TRBV remains unclear. However, targeted monitoring of birds and vectors is an effective measure of surveillance of arbovirus introduction into new geographic areas.

Role of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids, citrus pectin, and milk-derived exosomes on intestinal barrier integrity and immunity in animals.

The gastrointestinal tract of livestock and poultry is prone to challenge by feedborne antigens, pathogens, and other stress factors in the farm environment. Excessive physiological inflammation and oxidative stress that arises firstly disrupts the intestinal epithelial barrier followed by other components of the gastrointestinal tract. In the present review, the interrelationship between intestinal barrier inflammation and oxidative stress that contributes to the pathogenesis of inflammatory bowel disease was described. Further, the role of naturally existing immunomodulatory nutrients such as the omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids, citrus pectin, and milk-derived exosomes in preventing intestinal barrier inflammation was discussed. Based on the existing evidence, the possible molecular mechanism of these bioactive nutrients in the intestinal barrier was outlined for application in animal diets.

Genetic Characterization of a Neurovirulent West Nile Virus Variant Associated with a Fatal Great Grey Owl Infection.

This study reports on a fatal case of a captive great grey owl infected with the West Nile virus (WNV) in the zoological garden Kosice, eastern Slovakia (Central Europe). The tissue samples of the dead owl were used for virus isolation and genetic characterization. The novel isolate is genetically closer to Hungarian, Greek, and Bulgarian strains from the central/southern European clade of lineage 2 than to the strains previously isolated in Slovakia. Interestingly, it carries NS3-249P, a molecular virulence determinant associated with higher neurovirulence, which has not previously been observed in Slovakia. Subsequent serological investigation of the captive owls revealed additional seropositive animals, indicating local WNV transmission. Although no WNV-positive mosquitoes were found, the presence of the WNV principal vector Culex pipiens complex together with the described fatal case and further serological findings indicate an endemic focus of bird-neurovirulent WNV variant in the area.

The complete genome sequence analysis of West Nile virus strains isolated in Slovakia (central Europe).

The present study reports the first complete genome sequence analysis of West Nile virus (WNV) strains isolated from brain samples from raptors. The results prove the circulation of closely related WNV lineage II strains in central Europe and genetic analysis revealed seven amino acid substitutions in structural (PrM3, E159 and E231) and in non-structural (NS1109, NS5259, NS5310 and NS5600) proteins. Observed amino acid substitutions Phe3 and Ser231 were common only within the lineage VII Koutango strain isolated from Rhipicephalus guilhoni tick in Senegal. Further research could reveal whether these substitutions influence the biological properties of WNV, including virulence and neuroinvasiveness.

Degree of Bacterial Contamination of Mobile Phone and Computer Keyboard Surfaces and Efficacy of Disinfection with Chlorhexidine Digluconate and Triclosan to Its Reduction.

The main aim of our study was to verify the effectiveness of simple disinfection using wet wipes for reduction of microbial contamination of mobile phones and computer keyboards. Bacteriological swabs were taken before and after disinfection with disinfectant wipes with active ingredients chlorhexidine digluconate and triclosan. The incidence and type of microorganisms isolated before and after disinfection was evaluated; the difference was expressed as percentage of contamination reduction. Our results confirmed the high degree of surface contamination with bacteria, some of which are opportunistic pathogens for humans. Before the process of disinfection, on both surfaces, mobile phones, and computer keyboards, the common skin commensal bacteria like coagulase-negative staphylococci were diagnosed most frequently. On the keyboards, species of the genus Bacillus and representatives of the family Enterobacteriaceae were abundant. The potentially pathogenic species were represented by Staphylococcus aureus. Cultivation of swabs performed 5 min after disinfection and subsequent calculation of the reduction of contamination have shown that simple wiping with antibacterial wet wipe led to a significant reduction of microbial contamination of surfaces, with effect ranging from 36.8 to 100%.

A Serosurvey of Flavivirus Infection in Horses and Birds in Slovakia.

In central Europe, at least three flaviviruses circulate among vectors and vertebrate hosts. West Nile virus (WNV) and Usutu virus (USUV) are mosquito-borne viruses maintained in the nature by enzootic cycle between mosquitoes and birds. Tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV) is a flavivirus causing annual human cases in Slovakia. The aim of this study is the prevalence assessment of flavivirus infections in horses (n = 145) and birds (n = 109) by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and confirmation by neutralization test (VNT). WNV antibodies have been detected in 11.7% of tested horses and 11.9% of tested birds and confirmed in 6.9% of horse and 9.2% of bird samples. None of the WNV seropositive or dubious horses had WNV IgM (ELISA), and none of the tested horses had USUV neutralizing antibodies. Autochthonous WNV infections have been confirmed in 16.7% of horses without international travelling history. Most of them were from western Slovakia with known endemic WNV transmission. An autochthonous WNV infection in a horse from highland area of Kremnické vrchy (central Slovakia) with unknown data of WNV circulation and without travelling history was detected. TBEV antibody was detected in 6.2% of horses and in 3.4% has been confirmed. In two horses, WNV and TBEV infection could not be distinguished. Confirmed WNV seropositive were eight raptors showing nonspecific signs or suffering from trauma, one white stork, and one house sparrow. The sparrow was caught in a locality in eastern Slovakia, where WNV RNA had been previously detected in sparrows. USUV neutralizing antibodies were present in pooled sample from four Eurasian great tits. Because of insufficient volume, TBEV VNT was not carried out in birds. Results further prove the endemicity of WNV and other vector-borne flaviviruses in natural and accidental hosts in Slovakia, giving better insight in flavivirus epidemiology in European countries in general.

West Nile virus - a new infection in the Slovak Republic?

OBJECTIVE: The aim of the study was to evaluate the seroprevalence of West Nile virus (WNV) among the variable population of Eastern Slovakia. METHODS: A serologic survey was conducted using 464 serum samples. The basic demographic, epidemiologic and clinical information was obtained for each serum sample at the time of specimen collection. The presence of antibodies against WNV was investigated using a commercial enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). All the ELISA positive samples were further analysed by a neutralization test with WNV and Usutu virus. RESULTS: Three serum samples (0.65%) from the participants (N = 464) were considered positive for antibodies to WNV. A 29-year-old female was repeatedly exposed to mosquito bites working as a shepherdess and participating in many outdoor activities. Two other females (61 and 76 years old) were treated at the Department of Neurology due to monoparesis of the upper extremity, vertigo; both had a significant epidemiological history with frequent tick and mosquito bites and stay in an endemic region. CONCLUSIONS: Although there was no evidence of WNV infection in the Slovak Republic, the epidemiological situation in the neighbouring countries warrants vigilance and appropriate measures, including the introduction of specific diagnostic tools into clinical practice. The constant monitoring of birds and mosquitoes also seems necessary.

Detection of West Nile virus and tick-borne encephalitis virus in birds in Slovakia, using a universal primer set.

West Nile virus (WNV) is a mosquito-borne neurotropic pathogen that presents a major public health concern. Information on WNV prevalence and circulation in Slovakia is insufficient. Oral and cloacal swabs and bird brain samples were tested for flavivirus RNA by RT-PCR using newly designed generic primers. The species designation was confirmed by sequencing. WNV was detected in swab and brain samples, whereas one brain sample was positive for tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV). The WNV sequences clustered with lineages 1 and 2. These results confirm the circulation of WNV in birds in Slovakia and emphasize the risk of infection of humans and horses.

In vitro study of biological activities of anthocyanin-rich berry extracts on porcine intestinal epithelial cells.

BACKGROUND: Anthocyanins, compounds that represent the major group of flavonoids in berries, are one of the most powerful natural antioxidants. The aim of this study was to evaluate biological activities and comparison of anthocyanin-rich extracts prepared from chokeberry (Aronia melanocarpa), elderberry (Sambucus nigra), bilberry (Vaccinium myrtillus) and blueberry (V. corymbosum) on the porcine intestinal epithelial IPEC-1 cell line. RESULTS: The IC50 values calculated in the antioxidant cell-based dichlorofluorescein assay (DCF assay) were 1.129 mg L(-1) for chokeberry, 1.081 mg L(-1) for elderberry, 2.561 mg L(-1) for bilberry and 2.965 mg L(-1) for blueberry, respectively. We found a significant negative correlation (P < 0.001) between cyanidin glycosides content and IC50 values. Moreover, extracts rich in cyanidin glycosides stimulated proliferation of IPEC-1 cells and did not have cytotoxic effect on cells at an equivalent in vivo concentration. CONCLUSIONS: We found that the chokeberry and elderberry extracts rich in cyanidin glycosides possess better antioxidant and anticytotoxic activities in comparison to blueberry or bilberry extracts with complex anthocyanin profiles.

Analysis of biofilm formation by intestinal lactobacilli.

In this study, the biofilm-forming potential of intestinal Lactobacillus reuteri strains under different culture conditions was characterized by microtiter plate biofilm assays. Moreover, the spatial organization of exogenously applied L. reuteri L2/6 (a pig isolate) at specific locations in gastrointestinal tract of monoassociated mice was investigated by fluorescence in situ hybridization. We did not detect biofilm formation by tested strains in nutrient-rich de Man-Rogosa-Sharpe (MRS) medium. On the contrary, a highly positive biofilm formation was observed in medium with lower accessibility to the carbon sources and lack of salts. The results obtained confirmed the significant role of Tween 80 and the quantity and nature of the sugars in the growth medium in biofilm formation. The omission of Tween 80 in MRS medium favored the formation of biofilm. Abundant biofilm formation was detected in the presence of lactose, galactose, and glucose. However, a gradual increase in sugar concentration triggered a significant decrease in biofilm formation. In addition, conditions related to the gastrointestinal environment, such as low pH and the presence of bile and mucins, highly modulated biofilm production. This effect seems to be dependent on the specificity and properties of the medium used for cultivation. From the evidence provided by this study we conclude that the biofilm formation capacity of L. reuteri is strongly dependent on the environmental factors and culture medium used.

Prevalence of zoonotic Campylobacter spp. in rectal swabs from dogs in Slovakia: special reference to C. jejuni and C. coli.

This work focused on the isolation of thermophilic Campylobacter spp. in samples obtained from dog droppings. There were 135 samples collected and examined from both clinically healthy and diseased dogs from households, clinics, rehabilitation centres and dog shelters in eastern Slovakia. The isolation of the Campylobacter spp. was achieved by the use of combined selective cultivation methods, followed by confirmation and species identification of the isolates using the PCR method.The overall prevalence of Campylobacter in dogs was 30.4%. Statistically significant differences were recorded (P < 0.05) within the age groups of all dogs examined: 40.6% of the older dogs (> or = 1 year) tested positive, compared to 19.7% of the younger ones (< 1 year). There was no significant difference in relation to dog gender. The most frequently isolated species was Campylobacter (C.) jejuni, present in 51.2% of all positive samples. Campylobacter coli was present in 9.8% of the samples. The remaining positive samples (39%) were confirmed as C upsaliensis, based on phenotypic traits. The highest prevalence of Campylobacter was found in samples from shelters (50%) and the lowest in those from households (11.5%), with samples from rehabilitation centres (42.3%) and clinics (18.8%) coming in second and third place.The high prevalence of Campylobacter confirms the hypothesis that dogs, mainly the ones kept in groups, are a source of Campylobacter spp. Further investigation is required to determine to what extent infected dogs may be a potential source of infection in humans.

Dynamics of antibody response and viraemia following natural infection of porcine circovirus 2 (PCV-2) in a conventional pig herd.

Porcine circovirus 2 (PCV-2) is a primary agent of post-weaning multi-systemic wasting syndrome (PMWS), ubiquitous in pig herds. The course of viraemia and seroconversion in naturally infected pigs were investigated in piglets from the 2nd week of their life. Piglets were divided into seropositive (Ab(+)) and seronegative (Ab(-)) groups. Subsequently, after vaccination against PCV-2 (Ingelvac(®) CIRCOFLEX™, Böehringer Ingelheim), they were further divided into non-vaccinated seronegative (NVAC/Ab(-)) and seropositive (NVAC/Ab(+)), and vaccinated seronegative (VAC/Ab(-)) and seropositive (VAC/Ab(+)). PCV-2 colostral antibodies failed to prevent development of natural PCV-2 infection in conventional piglets; however, this occurred at a higher age in comparison with seronegative pigs. Neither colostral nor post-infection antibodies prevented development of viraemia, which persisted up to the end of the study (the 19th week), but without clinical signs of PMWS. Vaccination failed to prevent development of natural PCV-2 infection, but viraemia was limited to between the 8th and 10th week. The presence of colostral anti-PCV-2 antibodies did not show any untoward effect to vaccination; on the contrary, VAC/Ab(+) animals showed the lowest titre of viraemia.

The effects of sage extract feed supplementation on biochemical parameters, weight of internal organs and Salmonella counts in chickens.

We investigated the effects of dietary addition of sage extract on the biochemical parameters, weight of some body organs and changes in the counts of Salmonella Enteritidis PT4 (SE) in experimentally infected chickens. The following diets were used: basal diet, basal diet with addition of an extract of Salvia officinalis L. (S), basal diet and SE, and basal diet and S and SE (SSE). Compared to the SE group, sage extract in the SSE group decreased activities of ALP and ALT and concentrations of glucose and bilirubin on the 4th day post inoculation (p.i.). However, on the 18th day p.i., lower levels of bilirubin and ALT activity only were detected. Addition of sage extract to the diets decreased the counts of Salmonella in the liver, spleen and caecum at both sampling times, along with lower production of mucus in the chickens' intestines. Our results suggest that the addition of sage extract to the diet could be effective in protecting SE-infected chickens.

Evaluation of bendiocarb cytotoxicity in mammalian and insect cell cultures.

There is an increasing need for rapid and easily interpreted in vitro assays to screen for possible cytotoxicity of pesticides. The objective of this study was to investigate the effect of the carbamate insecticide bendiocarb on mammalian and insect cell cultures. The cytotoxicity of this insecticide was evaluated by cell proliferation and cellular damage was assessed by evaluation of the cytopathic effect and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) leakage. Cells of insect origin (Sf21) were the most sensitive to bendiocarb with significant (P < 0.01) suppression of their proliferative activity ranging from 10(-1)-10(-5) M. However, significant suppression of proliferative activity was also recorded in rat liver cells (WBF344; 10(-1)-10(-3) M; P < 0.01-0.05) and rabbit kidney cells (RK13; 10(-1) M; P < 0.01). In contrast with the proliferation activity of cells, a cytopathic effect based on cellular damage and LDH leakage into the medium was observed only at the highest concentration (10(-1) M) in RK 13 and WBF344 cells, but not in the Sf21 insect cell line. Our results indicate that bendiocarb exposure caused a cell-type dependent decrease in cell proliferation; however, cell damage and LDH leakage into the medium were not present or were strongly limited, dependent on the cell phenotype. Cell proliferation was shown as a sensitive indicator for evaluation of the cytotoxic effect of bendiocarb in vitro; on the other hand, microscopic signs of cellular damage and LDH leakage were insufficient in vitro markers.

The effect of supplementation of flax-seed oil on interaction of Lactobacillus plantarum--Biocenol™ LP96 and Escherichia coli O8:K88ab:H9 in the gut of germ-free piglets.

We investigated the influence of administration of flax-seed oil on interaction of Lactobacillus plantarum - Biocenol™ LP96 and Escherichia coli O8:K88ab:H9 in the gut of germ-free piglets. When compared to animals supplemented with L. plantarum, the counts of lactobacilli in the jejunal and ileal mucosa and in the intestinal content were significantly higher in LMK group (p<0.0001). Inter-groups comparison of the counts of E. coli K88 adhering to the jejunal and ileal mucosa revealed a significantly decrease in LMK animals (p<0.001; p<0.05).

Leukocytic responses and intestinal mucin dynamics of broilers protected with Enterococcus faecium EF55 and challenged with Salmonella Enteritidis.

The protective effect of Enterococcus faecium EF55 in chickens challenged with Salmonella enterica serovar Enteritidis phage type 4 (SE PT4) was assessed. The antibacterial effect on the bacterial microflora in the small intestine in relation to white blood cell count, phenotyping of peripheral blood and intestinal lymphocytes, functional activity of lymphocytes and phagocytes and mucin quantitation were investigated. Day-old chicks (85) were randomly divided into four groups. The probiotic group (EF) and Salmonella+probiotic group (EFSE) received E. faecium EF55 (10(9) CFU - 3 g/group/day) for 21 days. The Salmonella group (SE) and EFSE group were infected with Salmonella Enteritidis (10(8) CFU in 0.2 ml PBS) in a single dose per os on day four of the experiment. The control group chicks (C) were fed a commercial diet without added bacteria. Supplementation of EF55 in the diet of the chickens in the EFSE group, challenged with S. Enteritidis, caused the density of the intestinal mucin layer to increase significantly in non-specific regions (duodenum and jejunum), but decrease significantly in target regions (caeca) for S. Enteritidis. Probiotic treatment also appeared to result in a significantly higher number of lymphocytes in peripheral blood and a tendency to increase CD3, CD4, CD8, and IgM positive cells 3 days post-infection with S. Enteritidis. The results demonstrated an antibacterial effect and suggested that EF55 had a moderating effect on intestinal mucin production and leukocytic response in the early phase of S. Enteritidis infection.

Effect of oral cadmium and zinc application on leukocytes biological activity in Japanese quails (Coturnix coturnix japonica).

Objective of this study was to investigate changes in biological activity of blood leukocytes in Japanese quails, caused by zinc and cadmium administration. Four groups of Japanese quails were used. Three experimental groups of quails were exposed either to Cd (0.12 mg Cd/quail), Zn (4 mg Zn/quail) or a combination of Cd and Zn (0.12 mg Cd, 4 mg Zn/quail), which were added daily to the drinking water. The fourth group was the control group. The metabolic activity of phagocytes and mitogenic activation of lymphocytes to phytohemaglutinine (PHA) were determined on day 37, 58 and 118 of exposure. The numbers of peripheral blood leukocytes of Japanese quail after cadmium and zinc addition in all groups of birds were without significant differences, however, the functional activities of phagocytes and lymphocytes in the Cd-group of quails were significantly decreased. The metabolic activity of phagocytes decreased significantly at all time points analysed (P < 0.05-0.001) in comparison to the control group and the Cd-Zn group. Similarly, the response of lymphocytes to PHA activation in the Cd exposed group of quails decreased significantly on day 58 and 118 of exposure when compared to the control group (P < 0.05) and Zn-group of quails (P < 0.01). Zn in combination with Cd eliminated the immunotoxic effect of Cd on metabolic activity of phagocytes and improved lymphocyte answer to PHA, when compared to the Cd-group on day 58 and 118 of metal administration. The results of the present study indicate that cadmium caused a significant decrease of metabolic activity of phagocytes and mitogenic activation of lymphocytes in peripheral blood of Japanese quails. Simultaneous administration of Zn and Cd eliminated the immunotoxic effect of Cd on functional activity of phagocytes and lymphocytes, and zinc improved both investigated functional parameters of immune cells.

The effect of the probiotic strain Enterococcus faecium DSM 7134 in combination with natural humic substances on performance and health of broiler chickens.

The present study investigated the effect of the probiotic strain Enterococcus faecium DSM 7134 (2 x 10(7) cfu per g of feed) (probiotic group), natural humic substances (7g x kg(-1) feed) (HS group), and the combination of both (probiotic + HS group) on the performance, serum biochemistry, and biological activity of leucocytes of broiler chickens. Average body weight of chickens in different phases as well as throughout the observation period under different treatments did not differ significantly. Final body weight and feed conversion ratio (FCR) reached in 41 days of trial were 2542.5; 2568.9; 2610.5, 2516.6 g and 1.93; 1.81; 1.78; 1.88 kg for HS, probiotic, probiotic + HS and control group respectively. The best performance variables including the European efficiency index (EEI) were observed in the probiotic + HS group, where the effect of the probiotic supplementation was improved by HS. There were no significant differences among groups in the serum levels of total protein, glucose, cholesterol, aminotransferase and phosphorus. A significant decrease of total lipids in the probiotic group (P < 0.01) and probiotic + HS group (P < 0.001) groups, triglycerides levels in the HS (P < 0.01), probiotic and probiotic + HS (P < 0.001) groups on day 35, calcium level of the probiotic (P < 0.05) and probiotic + HS (P < 0.01) groups on day 41 and alkaline phosphatase levels in the probiotic group (P < 0.01) on day 14 were observed in comparison to the control group. Significantly higher values of indices of metabolic activity of phagocytes (IMA) after 14, 35 and 41 days of the experiment were observed in the probiotic + HS group (P < 0.01, P < 0.05) when compared with the control group. No adverse health effects were observed in experimental groups The results of the present study indicate that HS and E. faecium DSM 7134 had no significant effect on performance. However an improvement in FCR and EEI was observed which is believed to be due to the significant increase of indices of metabolic activity of phagocytes, caused by HS when combined with. E. faecium DSM 7134.

Antimicrobial activity of Enterococcus faecium ef 55 against Salmonella enteritidis in chicks.

The protective effect of Enterococcus faecium EF 55 against Salmonella enterica serovar Enteritidis phage type 4 (SE PT4) was studied in 1-day-old chicks. The EF 55 strain (isolated and characterised by the authors earlier) was applied daily (1.10(9) CFU/0.2 ml PBS) for 7 days. Oral inoculation of the SE PT4 strain was performed on day 8 in a single dose of 5.10(8) CFU/0.2 ml PBS. The experiment lasted for 21 days. Samples were collected on day 1 of the experiment to verify the absence of Salmonella, on day 8 to check colonisation of EF 55 and immunological status in experimental birds, and on days 2, 4, 6, 8 and 14 after SE PT4 infection of chicks. Strain EF 55 sufficiently colonised the digestive tract of chicks after 7 days of application. The highest numbers of EF 55 in the faeces of chicks were observed before SE infection and persisted to day 6 post infection (p.i.) in both the EF and EF+SE groups. PCR confirmed the identity of the EF 55 strain. The counts of SE PT4 strain in faeces of the EF+SE group were significantly reduced in comparison to those in the SE group on days 2 and 14 p.i. (P < 0.01). The significant reduction of salmonellae in the caecum was recorded at the end of the experiment (day 14 p.i.) in the EF+SE group in comparison to the SE group (P < 0.01). At day 4 p.i., colonies of S. Enteritidis PT4 were found in the liver of chicks of the SE group in a higher concentration than in chicks of the EF+SE group (P < 0.001). Salmonellae were isolated from the liver until days 8 and 6 p.i. in the SE and EF+SE groups, respectively. The mean values of actual lymphocyte subpopulations in the blood and the relative percentage of caecal intraepithelial lymphocyte subpopulations (CD4, CD8, CD44, TCR, MHC II and IgM) were not influenced at a statistically significant level by the application of the EF 55 and/or the SE PT4 strain. The results demonstrate the antimicrobial effect of E. faecium EF 55 against S. Enteritidis PT4.

Some food toxic for pets.

According to world statistics, dogs and cats are the species that owners most frequently seek assistance with potential poisonings, accounting 95-98% of all reported animal cases. Exposures occur more commonly in the summer and in December that is associated with the holiday season. The majority (>90%) of animal poisonings are accidental and acute in nature and occur near or at the animal owner's home. Feeding human foodstuff to pets may also prove dangerous for their health.The aim of this review was to present common food items that should not be fed (intentionally or unintentionally) to dogs, i.e. chocolate, caffeine, and other methylxanthines, grapes, raisins, onion, garlic, avocado, alcohol, nuts, xylitol contained in chewing gum and candies, etc. Onion and avocado are toxic for cats, too. The clinical effects of individual toxicants and possible therapy are also mentioned. Knowing what human food has the potential to be involved in serious toxicoses should allow veterinarians to better educate their clients on means of preventing pet poisonings.It can be concluded that the best advice must surely be to give animal fodder or treats specifically developed for their diets.