The role of exogenous testosterone and social environment on the expression of sociosexuality and status-seeking behaviors in young Chilean men.

Testosterone plays an important role as a social hormone. Current evidence suggests that testosterone is positively related to sociosexuality increasing the psychological attitudes toward investing in short-term versus long-term mating and promotes status-seeking behaviors both by dominance and prestige. In addition, the social environment may play an important role in the expression of mating effort through changes in sociosexuality and status-seeking behaviors. However, the causal relationships among the mentioned variables are still debated. We employed a double-blind, placebo-controlled within-individual design, in order to test and integrate the proposed causal relationships between testosterone and social environment over short-term and long-term mating orientation and dominant and prestigious status-seeking behaviors in a sample of 95 young Chilean men. We did not find evidence that the administration of exogenous testosterone increased short-term or decreased long-term mating orientation as expected. Moreover, exogenous testosterone did not affect either aggressive or cooperative behavior failing to support the social status hypothesis. We also did not find any relationship between short or long-term mating orientation with status-seeking behaviors. Finally, we found support for the effect of social environment on sociosexual attitudes but not over status-seeking behaviors. Thus, men reported higher levels of short-term mating orientation in the presence of a woman compared to a man and no differences were found for long-term mating orientation. We argue that sociosexuality may be expressed flexibly, but contextual factors such as the presence of women seem more important than changes in testosterone levels.

Evidence of the active participation of women in the intergroup conflict based on the use of aggression and cooperation.

Intergroup conflict has been a persistent aspect of human societies since the emergence of our species. Various researchers have proposed that competition between groups has acted as a key selective force throughout human evolutionary history. Such intergroup competition for limited resources exacerbated the expression of intergroup aggression and intragroup cooperation. Furthermore, it would have a sexual dimorphism, with men demonstrating increased sensitivity to conflict threats-in order to maximize reproductive opportunities-, while women generally reject from active engagement in intergroup conflict. In the present study, we conducted behavioral experiments under controlled laboratory conditions to measure cooperation and aggression from using virtual games, specifically the Public Good Games and the Point Subtraction Aggression Paradigm, in a sample of 541 participants. We created control and experimental intergroup competition scenarios, where aggression and cooperation were necessary to increase monetary rewards. Our results shows that men modulate aggression and cooperation in the presence of intergroup conflict. In addition, our data also reveals that women cooperate more than men and display heightened levels of cooperation and aggression when confronted with intergroup conflict. These findings prompt a reevaluation of current functional theoretical models concerning the role of women in intergroup conflict and suggest that the dynamics of human aggression and cooperation may be more nuanced than previously believed.

In support of 2D:4D: More data exploring its conflicting results on handedness, sexual orientation and sex differences.

In the last few years, several studies have questioned the value of the second-to-fourth digit ratio (2D:4D) as a measure of exposure to sex hormones before birth. Controversy has also extended to the 2D:4D association with individual features previously related to this exposure such as handedness and sexual orientation. Given that it has been argued that sex differences in 2D:4D could be a consequence of body-size differences, we have tested in a large sample the allometric relationship between finger lengths and body size. Our results show that the association is either allometric or isometric, depending on the analyses performed. In any case, the deviation from isometry is not large enough to explain the typically observed sex difference in this trait. We have also tested the association between sexual orientation and 2D:4D, finding a relationship between 2D:4D and sexual orientation in men but not in women. We attribute this discordance with previously published meta-analysis to differences in genetic background, a variable that has gained relevance in recent years in studies involving 2D:4D. Finally, we did not find any relationship between 2D:4D and handedness, evaluated through self-reported preference and hand performance. Our main conclusion is that 2D:4D shows differences between sexes beyond their disparity in body size. In our opinion, 2D:4D can be used cautiously as an indicator of intrauterine exposure to sex hormones taking into account some considerations, such as analysing a very large sample and taking careful measurements of the ethnicity of the sample.

Tandem Repeat DNA Provides Many Cytological Markers for Hybrid Zone Analysis in Two Subspecies of the Grasshopper Chorthippus parallelus.

Recent advances in next generation sequencing (NGS) have greatly increased our understanding of non-coding tandem repeat (TR) DNA. Here we show how TR DNA can be useful for the study of hybrid zones (HZ), as it serves as a marker to identify introgression in areas where two biological entities come in contact. We used Illumina libraries to analyse two subspecies of the grasshopper Chorthippus parallelus, which currently form a HZ in the Pyrenees. We retrieved a total of 152 TR sequences, and used fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH) to map 77 families in purebred individuals from both subspecies. Our analysis revealed 50 TR families that could serve as markers for analysis of this HZ, using FISH. Differential TR bands were unevenly distributed between chromosomes and subspecies. Some of these TR families yielded FISH bands in only one of the subspecies, suggesting the amplification of these TR families after the geographic separation of the subspecies in the Pleistocene. Our cytological analysis of two TR markers along a transect of the Pyrenean hybrid zone showed asymmetrical introgression of one subspecies into the other, consistent with previous findings using other markers. These results demonstrate the reliability of TR-band markers for hybrid zone studies.

The Relationship between Androgen Receptor Gene Polymorphism, Aggression and Social Status in Young Men and Women.

In both sexes, aggression has been described as a critical trait to acquire social status. Still, almost uniquely in men, the link between aggressiveness and the genetic background of testosterone sensitivity measured from the polymorphism in the androgen receptor (AR) gene has been previously investigated. We assessed the relevance of the AR gene to understand aggression and how aggressiveness affects social status in a cross-sectional study of 195 participants, for the first time in both young men and women. We estimated polymorphism sequences from saliva and measured aggression and self-perceived social status. Unfortunately, the results did not support our prediction because we did not find any of the expected relationships. Therefore, the results suggest that the genetic association between aggressive mechanisms and polymorphism of the AR gene is less straightforward than expected, at least in men, and seems to indicate that aggression is not usually used to gain social status in our population.

Correction: Testing strategic pluralism: The roles of attractiveness and competitive abilities to understand conditionality in men's short-term reproductive strategies.

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0237315.].

Testing strategic pluralism: The roles of attractiveness and competitive abilities to understand conditionality in men's short-term reproductive strategies.

The decision to allocate time and energy to find multiple sexual partners or raise children is a fundamental reproductive trade-off. The Strategic Pluralism Hypothesis argues that human reproductive strategies are facultatively calibrated towards either investing in mating or parenting (or a mixture), according to the expression of features dependent on the individual's condition. This study seeks to test predictions derived from this hypothesis in a sample of 242 young men (M ± SD = 22.12 ± 3.08) from Chile's 5th Region (33Ö¯ south latitude). Specifically, two predictions were considered that raise questions about the relationship between traits related to physical and psychological attractiveness (fluctuating facial asymmetry and self-perception of attractiveness) and competitive skills (baseline testosterone and self-perception of fighting ability) with short-term reproductive strategies. Our results indicate that psychological features related to the self-perception of physical attractiveness are related to short-term reproductive strategies. However, no evidence was found that fluctuating facial asymmetry, basal levels of testosterone and self-perception of fighting ability were related to short-term reproductive strategies. These results support the existing evidence of the importance of physical attractiveness in calibrating men's reproductive strategies but cast doubts about the role of fluctuating facial asymmetry. They also suggest that traits related to physical attractiveness, in comparison to competitive capabilities, play a more important role in calibrating men's short-term reproductive strategies.

Men's Bodily Attractiveness: Muscles as Fitness Indicators.

Bodily attractiveness is an important component of mate value. Musculature-a crucial component of men's bodily attractiveness-provides women with probabilistic information regarding a potential mate's quality. Overall musculature is comprised of several muscle groups, each of which varies in information value; different muscles should be weighted differently by attractiveness-assessment adaptations as a result. In the current study, women and men ( N = 1,742) reported size preferences for 14 major muscle groups. Women's reported preferences provided only partial support for our hypotheses that women will prefer muscles that most reliably differentiate between potential mates to be larger; men tended to prefer larger upper-body muscles. We discuss possible interpretations of these mixed findings. Ultimately, our findings suggest that attractiveness-assessment adaptations are sensitive to the information contained within specific muscle groups and they highlight the potential for additional research on the nuances of bodily attractiveness assessment.

Testosterone-dependent facial and body traits predict men's sociosexual attitudes and behaviors.

OBJECTIVES: Strategic Pluralism Theory contends that human mating strategies are calibrated toward short-term (ST) or long-term (LT) mating according to the expression of condition-dependent traits and characteristics of the social and physical environment. Traits reflecting the effects of testosterone have been considered condition-dependent traits that provide information about the calibration of male mating strategy. We investigated the relationship of muscle mass and facial masculinity with attitudes and behaviors reflecting ST and LT mating tactics. METHODS: We measured skeletal muscle mass (SMM) through bioelectrical impedance and facial width-to-height ratio (fWHR) in a sample of Chilean men (n = 206; mean age = 22.52 ± 4.65 SD), and collected information about sociosexual attitudes and past sexual behavior. RESULTS: Our results showed an interaction effect of SMM and fWHR on unrestricted (but not restricted) sociosexual attitudes and past sexual behavior. Individuals with a consistent expression of both traits (ie, high SMM and fWHR or low SMM and fWHR) reported higher levels of unrestricted sociosexual attitudes and a greater number of lifetime and previous-year sexual partners. CONCLUSIONS: These findings suggest that the intensity and consistency of expression of body and facial masculinity is important in signaling male mating tactics and sociosexual attitudes.

Chromosomal localization of Wolbachia inserts in the genomes of two subspecies of Chorthippus parallelus forming a Pyrenean hybrid zone.

Wolbachia are endosymbiotic bacteria of arthropods and nematodes that can manipulate the reproduction of various host organisms to facilitate their own maternal transmission. Moreover, Wolbachia's presence in host germ cells may contribute to the many cases of lateral gene transfer from Wolbachia to host genomes that have been described. A previous study in Chorthippus parallelus, a well-known orthopteroid forming a hybrid zone in the Pyrenees, identified Wolbachia sequences from two major supergroups in the genomes of infected and uninfected Chorthippus parallelus parallelus (Cpp) and Chorthippus parallelus erythropus (Cpe) subspecies. In this study, we map the Wolbachia genomic inserts to specific regions on the chromosomes of Cpp and Cpe by fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH) using tyramides to increase the accuracy and detection of these insertions. Additionally, we consider some of the possible roles that these bacterial inserts play in the organization and function of the grasshopper genome, as well as how they can serve as markers for phylogenetic relationships of these organisms.

Wolbachia co-infection in a hybrid zone: discovery of horizontal gene transfers from two Wolbachia supergroups into an animal genome.

Hybrid zones and the consequences of hybridization have contributed greatly to our understanding of evolutionary processes. Hybrid zones also provide valuable insight into the dynamics of symbiosis since each subspecies or species brings its unique microbial symbionts, including germline bacteria such as Wolbachia, to the hybrid zone. Here, we investigate a natural hybrid zone of two subspecies of the meadow grasshopper Chorthippus parallelus in the Pyrenees Mountains. We set out to test whether co-infections of B and F Wolbachia in hybrid grasshoppers enabled horizontal transfer of phage WO, similar to the numerous examples of phage WO transfer between A and B Wolbachia co-infections. While we found no evidence for transfer between the divergent co-infections, we discovered horizontal transfer of at least three phage WO haplotypes to the grasshopper genome. Subsequent genome sequencing of uninfected grasshoppers uncovered the first evidence for two discrete Wolbachia supergroups (B and F) contributing at least 448 kb and 144 kb of DNA, respectively, into the host nuclear genome. Fluorescent in situ hybridization verified the presence of Wolbachia DNA in C. parallelus chromosomes and revealed that some inserts are subspecies-specific while others are present in both subspecies. We discuss our findings in light of symbiont dynamics in an animal hybrid zone.

Facial Features: What Women Perceive as Attractive and What Men Consider Attractive.

Attractiveness plays an important role in social exchange and in the ability to attract potential mates, especially for women. Several facial traits have been described as reliable indicators of attractiveness in women, but very few studies consider the influence of several measurements simultaneously. In addition, most studies consider just one of two assessments to directly measure attractiveness: either self-evaluation or men's ratings. We explored the relationship between these two estimators of attractiveness and a set of facial traits in a sample of 266 young Spanish women. These traits are: facial fluctuating asymmetry, facial averageness, facial sexual dimorphism, and facial maturity. We made use of the advantage of having recently developed methodologies that enabled us to measure these variables in real faces. We also controlled for three other widely used variables: age, body mass index and waist-to-hip ratio. The inclusion of many different variables allowed us to detect any possible interaction between the features described that could affect attractiveness perception. Our results show that facial fluctuating asymmetry is related both to self-perceived and male-rated attractiveness. Other facial traits are related only to one direct attractiveness measurement: facial averageness and facial maturity only affect men's ratings. Unmodified faces are closer to natural stimuli than are manipulated photographs, and therefore our results support the importance of employing unmodified faces to analyse the factors affecting attractiveness. We also discuss the relatively low equivalence between self-perceived and male-rated attractiveness and how various anthropometric traits are relevant to them in different ways. Finally, we highlight the need to perform integrated-variable studies to fully understand female attractiveness.

Changes in preference for male faces during the menstrual cycle in a Spanish population / Cambios en la preferencia por rostros masculinos durante el ciclo menstrual en población española

A recent and controversial hypothesis suggests the presence of an oestrus phase in women as in other mammals. This implies that women at their optimal fertility point of the menstrual cycle exhibit behaviors focused to maximize the genetic quality of their offspring. Several studies support this hypothesis, finding that women in the fertile phase tend to prefer men with traits associated to phenotypic quality, such as greater facial masculinization and symmetry. We experimentally tested some of the observations supporting this hypothesis in a population of 810 young Spanish women. We analyzed whether the preference for masculinized male faces is affected by I) the phase of the menstrual cycle, II) having a stable partner and III) the use of birth control pills. We could not repro-duce the effect of the first two factors, but we found that women using hormonal contraceptives tend to prefer men with less masculine faces. These results indicate that some of the evidences supporting the oestrus hypothesis in humans must be reviewed, incorporating data from different socio-cultural and ethnic populations

Recientemente se ha postulado una controvertida hipótesis que propone la presencia de un periodo de estro en las mujeres, como ocurre en otros mamíferos. Ello implica que las mujeres en el óptimo de fertilidad del ciclo menstrual presenten comportamientos encaminados a maximizar la calidad genética de su descendencia. Diversas investigaciones sostienen esta hipótesis, al encontrar que las mujeres en la fase fértil prefieren hombres con rasgos que denotan mayor calidad fenotípica, como un mayor grado de masculinización o una mayor simetría. Nuestro objetivo ha sido testar experimentalmente en una población de 810 jóvenes españolas alguna de estas observaciones. Analizamos si, tal como se recoge en la bibliografía, la preferencia por rostros de hombres masculinizados se ve afectada por I) la etapa del ciclo menstrual, II) el tener pareja estable y III) el empleo anticonceptivos hormonales. No hemos podido reproducir el efecto de los dos primeros factores, pero sí encontramos que las mujeres que emplean anticonceptivos hormonales prefirieron rostros de hombre menos masculinos. Estos resultados no refutan la hipótesis del estro en humanos, pero nos indican que algunas de las pruebas que la sustentan han de ser reconsideradas, incorporando datos de poblaciones étnica y socioculturalmente diferentes

FISH methods in cytogenetic studies.

This chapter describes the various methods derived from the protocol of standard fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH) that are used in human, animal, plant, and microbial studies. These powerful techniques allow us to detect and physically map on interphase nuclei, chromatin fibers, or metaphase chromosomes probes derived from single-copy genes to repetitive DNA sequences. Other variants of the technique enable the co-localization of genes and the overall comparison of the genome among individuals of the same species or of different taxa. A further variant detects and localizes bacteria on tissues and cells. Overall, this offers a remarkable multiplicity of possible applications ranging from strict physical mapping, to clinical and evolutionary studies, making it a powerful and informative complement to other molecular, functional, or genomic approaches.

Whole-comparative genomic hybridization and "cell code" estimation: an application for assessment of cellular chimerism.

Whole-comparative genomic hybridization (W-CGH) allows one to identify copy number differences in highly repeated DNAs between two genomes. It allowed the identification of nuclear markers that can be used to distinguish cell populations from different individuals in a chimeric situation. We discuss the reliability of W-CGH accomplished with fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH) and digital image analysis (DIA) to analyze the degree of chimerism in patients after allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT).

[Will the climate change affect the mortality from prostate cancer?]. / Afectara el cambio climatico a la mortalidad por cancer de prostata?

UNLABELLED: The global heating of the atmosphere, as well as the increase of the exposition to sunlight, will be associated with a decrease of the mortality from prostate cancer, due to an increase of the plasmatic levels of vitamin D. OBJECTIVES: To evaluate if climatological factors (temperature, rainfall, and number of sunlight hours per year) may influence the mortality associated with prostate cancer over a five-year period. METHODS: In this ecology type study we will evaluate the trends of prostate tumors associated mortality in the period between January 1st 1998 and December 31st 2002, in the geographic area of Spain (17 Autonomic communities-CA-and 2 Autonomic cities- Ceuta and Melilla-, 43 million inhabitants). Demographic and mortality data were obtained from the National Institute of Statistics (INE) and climatological data about temperature and rainfall were obtained from the National Institute of Meteorology (INM). The provinces were classified using the climatic index of Martonne (defined as the quotient between annual rainfall and mean annual temperature plus 10). Areas with a quotient below 5 ml/m2/o C are considered extremely arid zones; between 5 and 15 ml/m2/o C are considered arid zones, between 15 and 20 ml/m2/o C semiarid zones; between 20 and 30 ml/m2/o C subhumid zones; between 30 and 60 ml/m2/o C humid zones; and over 60 ml/m2/o C superhumid zones. We compared mortality rates between different climatic areas using the Jonckheere-Terpstra test for six independent samples following the index of Martonne. All calculations were performed using the SPSS v 13.0 for Windows software. A logistic regression model was performed to identify climate factors associated with prostate cancer mortality. A likeliness of the null hypotheses inferior to 0.05 was considered significant. RESULTS: Prostate cancer mortality presented statistically significant differences, being higher in provinces with higher Martonne index (p < 0.001) and lower in areas with a greater number of sunlight hours per year (p = 0.041). The adjusted mortality rate associated with extreme aridity regions and was 21.51 cases/100,000 males year, whereas in humid zones it was 35.87 cases/100,000 males years. CONCLUSIONS: Mortality associated with prostate cancer is significantly superior in regions with less exposition to the sunlight. The climate change may lead to a modification of the main epidemiologic patterns, and it may be associated with a modification of cancer mortality rates. Nevertheless, these results should be taken with caution and should be confirmed by prospective studies.

¿Afectará el cambio climático a la mortalidad por cáncer de próstata? / Will the climate change affect the mortality from prostate cancer?

El calentamiento global de la atmósfera, así como el incremento de la exposición a la luz solar, se asociará a un descenso de la mortalidad unida al cáncer de próstata, debido a un incremento de los niveles plasmáticos de Vitamina D. OBJETIVOS: Evaluar si los factores climatológicos (temperaturas, precipitación y número de horas de luz solar al año) influyen sobre la mortalidad asociada al cáncer de próstata a lo largo de un período de cinco años. METODOS: En este estudio de tipo ecológico se evaluaron las tendencias de mortalidad asociada a los tumores de próstata en el período comprendido entre el 1 de Enero de 1998 y el 31 de Diciembre de 2002, en el área geográfica de España (17 Comunidades Autónomas -CCAA- y dos Ciudades Autónomas -Ceuta y Melilla-, 43.000.000 habitantes). Los datos demográficos y de mortalidad se obtuvieron del Instituto Nacional de Estadística (INE) y los datos climatológico de temperaturas y precipitaciones se obtuvieron del Instituto Nacional de Meteorología (INM). Se clasificaron las diferentes provincias mediante el índice climático de Martonne (definido como el cociente entre las precipitaciones anuales y la temperatura media anual mas 10). Se consideraron zonas de aridez extrema aquellas cuyo cociente sea inferior a 5 ml/m2/ºC, zonas áridas aquellas cuyo cociente se encuentre entre 5 y 15 ml/m2/ºC, zonas semiáridas aquellas que se encuentren entre 15 y 20 ml/m2/ºC, subhúmedas entre 20 y 30 ml/m2/ºC, húmedas entre 30 y 60 y pérhúmedas cuando sean superiores a 60 ml/m2/ºC. Se valoraron las diferentes tasas de mortalidad entre las distintas áreas climáticas mediante el test de Jonckheere-Terpstra para 6 muestras independientes según el Índice de Martonne. Todos los cálculos se realizarán mediante el software SPSS v13.0 para Windows. Se realizó un modelo de regresión logística para identificar factores climáticos asociados a la mortalidad por cáncer de próstata. Se consideró significativo una verosimilitud de la hipótesis nula inferior a 0,05. RESULTADOSLa mortalidad por cáncer de próstata presentó diferencias estadísticamente significativas siendo superior en las provincias con índice de Martonne más elevado (p< 0,001) y menor en las áreas con mayor numero de horas de sol al año (p=0,041). La tasa de mortalidad ajustada asociada a las áreas de aridez extrema fue de 21,51 casos/100.000 varones y año, mientras que en las zonas húmedas fue de 35,87 casos/100,000 varones y año. CONCLUSIONES: La mortalidad asociada al cáncer de próstata es significativamente superior en las regiones con menor exposición solar. El cambio climático puede conducir a una modificación en los patrones epidemiológicos, pudiendo asociarse a una modificación de las tasas de mortalidad por cáncer. No obstante, estos resultados hay que tomarlos con precaución y deben ser confirmados por estudios prospectivos (AU)

The global heating of the atmosphere, as well as the increase of the exposition to sunlight, will be associated with a decrease of the mortality from prostate cancer, due to an increase of the plasmatic levels of vitamin D. OBJECTIVES: To evaluate if climatological factors (temperature, rainfall, and number of sunlight hours per year) may influence the mortality associated with prostate cancer over a five-year period. METHODS: In this ecology type study we will evaluate the trends of prostate tumors associated mortality in the period between January 1st 1998 and December 31st 2002, in the geographic area of Spain (17 Autonomic communities-CA-and 2 Autonomic cities- Ceuta and Melilla-, 43 million inhabitants). Demographic and mortality data were obtained from the National Institute of Statistics (INE) and climatological data about temperature and rainfall were obtained from the National Institute of Meteorology (INM). The provinces were classified using the climatic index of Martonne (defined as the quotient between annual rainfall and mean annual temperature plus 10). Areas with a quotient below 5 ml/m2/o C are considered extremely arid zones; between 5 and 15 ml/m2/o C are considered arid zones, between 15 and 20 ml/m2/o C semiarid zones; between 20 and 30 ml/m2/o C subhumid zones; between 30 and 60 ml/m2/o C humid zones; and over 60 ml/m2/o C superhumid zones. We compared mortality rates between different climatic areas using the Jonckheere-Terpstra test for six independent samples following the index of Martonne. All calculations were performed using the SPSS v 13.0 for Windows software. A logistic regression model was performed to identify climate factors associated with prostate cancer mortality. A likeliness of the null hypotheses inferior to 0.05 was considered significant. RESULTS: Prostate cancer mortality presented statistically significant differences, being higher in provinces with higher Martonne index (p < 0.001) and lower in areas with a greater number of sunlight hours per year (p = 0.041). The adjusted mortality rate associated with extreme aridity regions and was 21.51 cases/100,000 males year, whereas in humid zones it was 35.87 cases/100,000 males years. CONCLUSIONS: Mortality associated with prostate cancer is significantly superior in regions with less exposition to the sunlight. The climate change may lead to a modification of the main epidemiologic patterns, and it may be associated with a modification of cancer mortality rates. Nevertheless, these results should be taken with caution and should be confirmed by prospective studies

Simultaneous observation of DNA fragmentation and protein loss in the boar spermatozoon following application of the sperm chromatin dispersion (SCD) test.

DNA fragmentation and the nuclear protein matrix in boar spermatozoa were simultaneously assessed using a specific variant of the sperm chromatin dispersion (SCD) test that allows direct visualization of DNA and nuclear proteins under standard conditions of chemical lysis. Nuclear proteins remaining after lysis were stained with the fluorochrome 2,7-dibrom-4-hydroxy-mercury-fluorescein for specific protein staining. DNA and nuclear protein were stained in control-untreated (no lysis) and treated sperm cells (lysis), resulting in the identification of 3 cell types: type 1: nonlysed (control-untreated) cells; type 2: lysed cells showing nonfragmented DNA; and type 3: lysed cells showing fragmented DNA. DNA damage was also purposely induced by incubating the sperm in 0.015% H(2)O(2) for 48 hours at 37 degrees C; the cells were correspondingly stained for DNA fragmentation and protein. Nonlysed control sperm (type 1) nuclei showed no halos and stained strongly for protein in the postacrosomal region. Lysed spermatozoa with nonfragmented DNA (type 2) showed evidence of restricted DNA loop dispersions at the caudal extremity of the sperm head and a more homogenous but similar distribution of protein matrix in comparison with untreated spermatozoa. Lysed spermatozoa with fragmented DNA (type 3) exhibited large halos of DNA loops and a loss of the nuclear protein matrix component. Sperm cells exposed to 48 hours' incubation at 37 degrees C and then treated with the lysing agent showed a concurrent and progressive loss of nuclear protein in association with correspondingly increased levels of DNA fragmentation. Discriminant analysis of quantitative fluorescence using digital image analysis and conducted after SCD processing revealed that DNA fragmentation and protein could be evaluated in an automated system. Ninety-seven percent of the total analyzed cells were accurately classified according to previously defined cell types (1, 2, and 3). The results of the current study demonstrated a synergistic relationship between that of nuclear protein alteration and DNA damage in the boar sperm cell. The importance of abnormal nuclear protein alteration to DNA fragmentation and any related effect on fertility remains to be investigated.

Whole-comparative genomic hybridization (W-CGH): 1. The quick overview of repetitive DNA sequences on a genome.

We present a technique (W-CGH) based on Comparative Genomic Hybridization (CGH), but using whole DNA probes, which permits the identification of chromosomal polymorphisms related to highly repetitive DNA sequences that exist between the two genomes compared. The procedure employs two differently colored whole DNA probes from two different individuals that are mixed and hybridized to metaphase chromosomes. The method provides a simple way to map whole genome differences for highly repetitive DNA sequences between two individuals, since it does not require chromosome-specific probes.