Chromatin dynamics during herpes simplex virus-1 lytic infection.

Herpes simplex virus type 1 is a DNA virus that can establish lytic infections in epithelial cells and latent infections in sensory neurons. Upon entry into the nucleus the genome of HSV-1 rapidly associates with histone proteins. Similar to the genomes of the cellular host, HSV-1 is subject to chromatin-based regulation of transcription and replication. However, unlike the host genome, nucleosomes appear to be underrepresented on the HSV genome. During lytic infection, when the genome is transcribed, the HSV-1 chromatin structure appears to be disorganized, and characterized by histone variant sub-types and post-translational modifications representative of active chromatin. In contrast, during latency, when the majority of the viral genome is transcriptionally silent, the chromatin is compacted into a regularly repeating, compact heterochromatic structure. Here we discuss recent studies that underscore the importance of chromatin regulation during the lytic phase of the HSV-1 life-cycle.

The histone variant H3.3 regulates gene expression during lytic infection with herpes simplex virus type 1.

It has been proposed that incorporation of the histone variant H3.3 within actively transcribed regions of a genome helps to facilitate transcription. In this report we use lytic infection by herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) as a model to examine the temporal profile of histone H3 incorporation and to determine whether the variant histone H3.3 has a direct effect on transcription. We find that canonical H3.1 and variant H3.3 exhibit distinct temporal associations with the genome in cell lines expressing equal amounts of epitope-tagged H3 variants. At the earliest times examined after infection, the HSV-1 genome is incorporated into chromatin that predominantly contains the variant H3.3, whereas incorporation of canonical H3.1 occurs later in infection and is dependent on replication of the HSV-1 genome. Further, inhibition of H3.3 association, via reduced expression of the H3.3 chaperone HIRA, significantly reduces the levels of HSV-1 mRNA. These findings show that incorporation of H3.3 facilitates transcription, and they provide new evidence for a regulatory role of chromatin composition during HSV-1 acute infection.

Repression of p53 activity by Smyd2-mediated methylation.

Specific sites of lysine methylation on histones correlate with either activation or repression of transcription. The tumour suppressor p53 (refs 4-7) is one of only a few non-histone proteins known to be regulated by lysine methylation. Here we report a lysine methyltransferase, Smyd2, that methylates a previously unidentified site, Lys 370, in p53. This methylation site, in contrast to the known site Lys 372, is repressing to p53-mediated transcriptional regulation. Smyd2 helps to maintain low concentrations of promoter-associated p53. We show that reducing Smyd2 concentrations by short interfering RNA enhances p53-mediated apoptosis. We find that Set9-mediated methylation of Lys 372 inhibits Smyd2-mediated methylation of Lys 370, providing regulatory cross-talk between post-translational modifications. In addition, we show that the inhibitory effect of Lys 372 methylation on Lys 370 methylation is caused, in part, by blocking the interaction between p53 and Smyd2. Thus, similar to histones, p53 is subject to both activating and repressing lysine methylation. Our results also predict that Smyd2 may function as a putative oncogene by methylating p53 and repressing its tumour suppressive function.

Trimethylation of histone H3 lysine 4 by Set1 in the lytic infection of human herpes simplex virus 1.

Human herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) is a double-stranded DNA virus that causes facial, ocular, and encephalitic disease in humans. Previous work showed that the genome of HSV-1 is associated with acetylated and methylated histones during lytic infection. However, the physiological role of histone modifications in lytic infection of HSV-1 is unclear. We examined the role of protein methylation in lytic infection of HSV-1 using a protein methylation inhibitor, 5'-deoxy-5'-methylthioadenosine (MTA). We found that MTA strongly reduces the transcription and replication of HSV-1. Moreover, MTA treatment decreases the level of trimethylation of lysine 4 in histone H3 (H3K4me3) on the HSV-1 genome. These results suggest that protein methylation, and in particular, histone methylation, is involved in the lytic infection of HSV-1. To delineate the underlying mechanism, we investigated the role of two H3K4 methyltransferases, Set1 and Set7/9, in the lytic infection of HSV-1. Using small interference RNA, we found that the reduction of Set1, but not Set7/9, reduces the transcription and replication of HSV-1 and specifically decreases H3K4me3 on the virus genome. These results indicate that H3K4me3 mediated by Set1 is required for optimal gene expression and replication of HSV-1 during lytic infection and suggest that this pathway could be a potential point of pharmacological intervention during HSV-1 infection.

The H2A.Z/H2B dimer is unstable compared to the dimer containing the major H2A isoform.

The nucleosome, the basic fundamental repeating unit of chromatin, contains two H2A/H2B dimers and an H3/H4 tetramer. Modulation of the structure and dynamics of the nucleosome is an important regulation mechanism of DNA-based chemistries in the eukaryotic cell, such as transcription and replication. One means of altering the properties of the nucleosome is by incorporation of histone variants. To provide insights into how histone variants may impact the thermodynamics of the nucleosome, the stability of the heterodimer between the H2A.Z variant and H2B was determined by urea-induced denaturation, monitored by far-UV circular dichroism, intrinsic Tyr fluorescence intensity, and anisotropy. In the absence of stabilizing agents, the H2A.Z/H2B dimer is only partially folded. The stabilizing cosolute, trimethylamine-N-oxide (TMAO) was used to promote folding of the unstable heterodimer. The equilibrium stability of the H2A.Z/H2B dimer is compared to that of the H2A/H2B dimer. The equilibrium folding of both histone dimers is highly reversible and best described by a two-state model, with no detectable equilibrium intermediates populated. The free energies of unfolding, in the absence of denaturant, of H2A.Z/H2B and H2A/H2B are 7.3 kcal mol(-1) and 15.5 kcal mol(-1), respectively, in 1 M TMAO. The H2A.Z/H2B dimer is the least stable histone fold characterized to date, while H2A/H2B appears to be the most stable. It is speculated that this difference in stability may contribute to the different biophysical properties of nucleosomes containing the major H2A and the H2A.Z variant.

Three-state kinetic folding mechanism of the H2A/H2B histone heterodimer: the N-terminal tails affect the transition state between a dimeric intermediate and the native dimer.

The H2A/H2B heterodimer is a component of the nucleosome core particle, the fundamental repeating unit of chromatin in all eukaryotic cells. The kinetic folding mechanism for the H2A/H2B dimer has been determined from unfolding and refolding kinetics as a function of urea using stopped-flow, circular dichroism and fluorescence methods. The kinetic data are consistent with a three-state mechanism: two unfolded monomers associate to form a dimeric intermediate in the dead-time of the SF instrument (approximately 5 ms); this intermediate is then converted to the native dimer by a slower, first-order reaction. Analysis of the burst-phase amplitudes as a function of denaturant indicates that the dimeric kinetic intermediate possesses approximately 50% of the secondary structure and approximately 60% of the surface area burial of the native dimer. The stability of the dimeric intermediate is approximately 30% of that of the native dimer at the monomer concentrations employed in the SF experiments. Folding-to-unfolding double-jump experiments were performed to monitor the formation of the native dimer as a function of folding delay times. The double-jump data demonstrate that the dimeric intermediate is on-pathway and obligatory. Formation of a transient dimeric burst-phase intermediate has been observed in the kinetic mechanism of other intertwined, segment-swapped, alpha-helical, DNA-binding dimers, such as the H3-H4 histone dimer, Escherichia coli factor for inversion stimulation and E.coli Trp repressor. The common feature of a dimeric intermediate in these folding mechanisms suggests that this intermediate may accelerate protein folding, when compared to the folding of archael histones, which do not populate a transient dimeric species and fold more slowly.

The effect of salts on the stability of the H2A-H2B histone dimer.

The core nucleosome, which comprises an H3-H4 tetramer and two H2A-H2B dimers, is not a static DNA packaging structure. The nucleosome is a dynamic protein-DNA complex, and the modulation of its structure is an important component of transcriptional regulation. To begin to understand the molecular details of nucleosome dynamics, we have investigated the stability of the isolated H2A-H2B dimer. The urea-induced equilibrium responses of the heterodimer have been examined by far-UV circular dichroism and intrinsic tyrosine fluorescence. The two spectroscopic probes yielded coincident transitions, and global fitting of the reversible urea-induced unfolding further demonstrated that H2A-H2B unfolds by a two-state equilibrium response. At physiological ionic strengths, the free energy of unfolding in the absence of urea of H2A-H2B is 11.8 +/- 0.3 kcal mol(-)(1), moderate stability for a dimer of 26.4 kDa. The m value, or sensitivity of the unfolding to urea, is 2.9 +/- 0.1 kcal mol(-)(1) M(-)(1). This value is significantly larger than would be predicted for the unfolding of the dimerization motif alone ( approximately 2 kcal mol(-)(1) M(-)(1)), suggesting that the N-terminal tails may adopt a collapsed, solvent-excluding structure that undergoes an unfolding transition. The efficacies of several potassium salts and three chloride salts to stabilize the H2A-H2B dimer were determined. The salt-dependent stabilization of the H2A-H2B dimer shows that the Hofmeister effect is the predominant mode of stabilization. However, studies employing multiple salts suggest that there is a component of stabilization that must arise from screening of electrostatic repulsion in the highly basic heterodimer. The most highly charged regions of the dimer are the N-terminal tails, sites of posttranslational modifications such as acetylation and phosphorylation. These modifications, which alter the charge density of the tails, are involved in regulation of nucleosome dynamics.

The N-terminal tails of the H2A-H2B histones affect dimer structure and stability.

The histone proteins of the core nucleosome are highly basic and form heterodimers in a "handshake motif." The N-terminal tails of the histones extend beyond the canonical histone fold of the hand-shake motif and are the sites of posttranslational modifications, including lysine acetylations and serine phosphorylations, which influence chromatin structure and activity as well as alter the charge state of the tails. However, it is not well understood if these modifications are signals for recruitment of other cellular factors or if the removal of net positive charge from the N-terminal tail plays a role in the overall structure of chromatin. To elucidate the effects of the N-terminal tails on the structure and stability of histones, the highly charged N-terminal tails were truncated from the H2A and H2B histones. Three mutant dimers were studied: DeltaN-H2A/WT H2B; WT H2A/DeltaN-H2B, and DeltaN-H2A/DeltaN-H2B. The CD spectra, stabilities to urea-denaturation, and the salt-dependent stabilization of the three truncated dimers were compared with those of the wild-type dimer. The data support four conclusions regarding the effects of the N-terminal tails of H2A and H2B: (1) Removal of the N-terminal tails of H2A and H2B enhance the helical structure of the mutant heterodimers. (2) Relative to the full-length WT heterodimer, the DeltaN-H2A/WT H2B dimer is destabilized, while the WT H2A/DeltaN-H2B and DeltaN-H2A/DeltaN-H2B dimers are slightly stabilized. (3) The truncated dimers exhibit decreased m values, relative to the WT dimer, supporting the hypothesis that the N-terminal tails in the isolated dimer adopt a collapsed structure. (4) Electrostatic repulsion in the N-terminal tails decreases the stability of the H2A-H2B dimer.