Frequency and type of adverse analytical findings in athletics: Differences among disciplines.

Athletics is a highly diverse sport that contains a set of disciplines grouped into jumps, throws, races of varying distances, and combined events. From a physiological standpoint, the physical capabilities linked to success are quite different among disciplines, with varying involvements of muscle strength, muscle power, and endurance. Thus, the use of banned substances in athletics might be dictated by physical dimensions of each discipline. Thus, the aim of this investigation was to analyse the number and distribution of adverse analytical findings per drug class in athletic disciplines. The data included in this investigation were gathered from the Anti-Doping Testing Figure Report made available by the World Anti-Doping Agency (from 2016 to 2018). Interestingly, there were no differences in the frequency of adverse findings (overall,~0.95%, range from 0.77 to 1.70%) among disciplines despite long distance runners having the highest number of samples analysed per year (~9812 samples/year). Sprinters and throwers presented abnormally high proportions of adverse analytical findings within the group of anabolic agents (p < 0.01); middle- and long-distance runners presented atypically high proportions of findings related to peptide hormones and growth factors (p < 0.01); racewalkers presented atypically high proportions of banned diuretics and masking agents (p = 0.05). These results suggest that the proportion of athletes that are using banned substances is similar among the different disciplines of athletics. However, there are substantial differences in the class of drugs more commonly used in each discipline. This information can be used to effectively enhance anti-doping testing protocols in athletics.

Outcomes of adverse analytical findings in individual and team sports.

The aim of this investigation was to describe the outcomes of the adverse analytical findings in different Olympic sports. The data included were gathered from the World Anti-Doping Agency Anti-doping Rule Violations Reports (2013-2017). Weightlifting (78.1 ± 9.4%) wrestling (73.2 ± 18.5%) and volleyball (68.3 ± 18.7%) were the sports with the highest proportion of cases that ended in an antidoping sanction. Gymnastics (45.1 ± 10.1%), triathlon (32.6 ± 11.9%) and shooting (29.9 ± 14.1%) were the sports with a higher frequency of cases that were not sanctioned due to medical reasons. Gymnastics (22.4 ± 18.4%), boxing (23.2 ± 16.0%) and taekwondo (17.3.1 ± 16.4%) presented the highest proportion of cases that are still pending resolution. The proportion of cases that ended in no sanction was higher in fencing (26.2 ± 22.7%), skating (23.6 ± 35.1%) and tennis (18.6 ± 26.5%). These results indicate that the sanctions derived from antidoping rule violations were not uniform in all sports disciplines.

Sport-Specific Use of Doping Substances: Analysis of World Anti-Doping Agency Doping Control Tests between 2014 and 2017.

Background: In recent years, there has been a solid effort across all sports organizations to reduce the prevalence and incidence of doping in sport. However, the efficacy of current strategies to fight against doping might be improved by using anti-doping polices tailored to the features of doping in each sport. Objectives: The aim of this investigation was to analyze the substances more commonly found in doping control tests in individual and team sports. Material and Methods: The publicly accessible Testing Figures Reports made available by the World Anti-Doping Agency, were analyzed from 2014 to 2017. Results: The most commonly detected groups of banned substances were anabolic agents and stimulants but the distribution of adverse findings per drug class was very different depending on the sports discipline. Weightlifting, athletics, rugby, hockey and volleyball presented abnormally high proportions of anabolic agents (p = 2.8 × 10-11). Cycling, athletics and rugby presented atypically elevated proportions of peptide hormones and growth factors (p = 1.4 × 10-1). Diuretics and masking agents were more commonly found in boxing, wrestling, taekwondo, judo, shooting, and gymnastics than in other sports (p = 4.0 × 10-68). Cycling, rowing, aquatics, tennis, gymnastics and ice hockey presented abnormally high proportions of stimulants (p = 1.8 × 10-5). Conclusions: These results indicate that the groups of banned substances more commonly detected in anti-doping control tests were different depending on the sports discipline. These data suggest the prohibited substances used as doping agents might be substantially different depending on the type of sport and thus, sports-specific anti-doping policies should be implemented to enhance the efficacy of anti-doping testing.

Prevalence and patterns of dietary supplement use in elite Spanish athletes.

BACKGROUND: Dietary supplementation is a common strategy to achieve a specific health status or performance benefit. Several investigations have focused on the prevalence of dietary supplement use by athletes. However, information on how athletes manage the use and purchase of dietary supplements is scarce. METHODS: Five hundred and twenty-seven high-performance athletes (346 males and 181 females), participating in individual and team sports, completed a validated questionnaire about use and purchase patterns of dietary supplements. The dietary supplements were categorized according to the International Olympic Committee (IOC) consensus. RESULTS: Sixty four percent of the athletes (n = 337) used dietary supplements (median = 3; range 1 to 12). Age, sex, type of sport, level of competition, and professionalism influenced the prevalence of dietary supplement use (all p < 0.05). The most prevalent dietary supplement consumed was proteins (41%; n = 137), followed by amino acids/BCAA-based supplements (37%; n = 124). Additionally, as per group of supplements according to IOC consensus, 18% of the supplements were rated as having a low level of scientific evidence (e.g., glutamine, HMB, L-carnitine, etc). Most athletes (45%, n = 152) purchased dietary supplements in a store and 24% (n = 81) obtained them from a sponsor. Most athletes also (42%, n = 141) reported a self-organization of supplementation and did not consult with any professional. Last, 81% (n = 273) of athletes consuming supplements did not know any platform to check supplement safety/quality. For those who do not use dietary supplements (36% of the total sample, n = 190), most reported that they do not consider supplements necessary (72%, n = 137). CONCLUSION: Dietary supplementation appears to be widely used in sport with a considerable proportion of athletes consuming supplements with low level of scientific evidence. Additionally, athletes seem to rely on inadequate sources of information and may be largely unaware of sources to detect supplement contamination.

Urine Caffeine Concentration in Doping Control Samples from 2004 to 2015.

The ergogenic effect of caffeine is well-established, but the extent of its consumption in sport is unknown at the present. The use of caffeine was considered "prohibited" until 2004, but this stimulant was moved from the List of Prohibited Substances to the Monitoring Program of the World Anti-Doping Agency to control its use by monitoring urinary caffeine concentration after competition. However, there is no updated information about the change in the use of caffeine as the result of its inclusion in the Monitoring Program. The aim of this study was to describe the changes in urine caffeine concentration from 2004 to 2015. A total of 7488 urine samples obtained in official competitions held in Spain and corresponding to athletes competing in Olympic sports (2788 in 2004, 2543 in 2008, and 2157 in 2015) were analyzed for urine caffeine concentration. The percentage of samples with detectable caffeine (i.e., >0.1 µg/mL) increased from ~70.1%, in 2004⁻2008 to 75.7% in 2015. The median urine caffeine concentration in 2015 (0.85 µg/mL) was higher when compared to the median value obtained in 2004 (0.70 µg/mL; p < 0.05) and in 2008 (0.70 µg/mL; p < 0.05). The urine caffeine concentration significantly increased from 2004 to 2015 in aquatics, athletics, boxing, judo, football, weightlifting, and rowing (p < 0.05). However, the sports with the highest urine caffeine concentration in 2015 were cycling, athletics, and rowing. In summary, the concentration of caffeine in the urine samples obtained after competition in Olympic sports in Spain increased from 2004 to 2015, particularly in some disciplines. These data indicate that the use of caffeine has slightly increased since its removal from the list of banned substances, but urine caffeine concentrations suggest that the use of caffeine is moderate in most sport specialties. Athletes of individual sports or athletes of sports with an aerobic-like nature are more prone to using caffeine in competition.

[Validation of a questionnaire to study the prevalence of nutritional supplements used by elite Spanish athletes]. / Validación de una encuesta para determinar la prevalencia en el uso de suplementos en deportistas de élite españoles.

INTRODUCTION: the use of dietary supplements is a widespread strategy performed by high-performance athletes worldwide. However, there is no validated questionnaire to determine the frequency and type of dietary supplements used by elite Spanish athletes. OBJECTIVE: the purpose of this investigation was to test the validity of a questionnaire designed to assess the prevalence in the use of dietary supplements by elite Spanish athletes. MATERIAL AND METHODS: initially, the questionnaire was designed to obtain information about the utilisation of five types of supplements (stimulants, ergogenic aids, supplements for weight control, supplements for improved recovery and medicines). Then, the validity of the questionnaire contents was evaluated by a group of six experts in dietary supplements who ranked the relevance and clarity of each question by using 1-10-point scales. The final version of the questionnaire was test-retested in a group of 39 elite athletes to verify the reproducibility in the answers reported in the questionnaire. RESULTS: after the evaluation of the group of experts, the questionnaire was completed with 81 questions regarding sociodemographic information and data about motives and frequency and conditions of dietary supplements purchase. The test-retest of the questionnaire showed a high reliability in all the answers obtained in the test-retest. CONCLUSION: the questionnaire included in this investigation fulfilled the standards for the obtaining of valid and reproducible data regarding the prevalence in the use of dietary supplements by Spanish athletes.

INTRODUCCIÓN: el uso de suplementos deportivos es una estrategia generalizada entre los deportistas de alto rendimiento. Sin embargo, no existe ningún cuestionario validado en castellano para determinar la prevalencia en el uso de suplementos deportivos en deportistas. OBJETIVO: el objetivo de esta investigación fue validar un cuestionario en castellano para estudiar la prevalencia del uso de suplementos deportivos. MATERIAL Y MÉTODOS: en una primera fase, el cuestionario fue diseñado para recabar información sobre la frecuencia en el uso de cinco categorías de suplementos (estimulantes, potenciadores del rendimiento, suplementos para control de peso, "recuperadores" y medicamentos). Posteriormente, el contenido del cuestionario fue validado por un grupo de seis expertos que valoraron la pertinencia y claridad de cada pregunta del cuestionario en escalas de 1-10 puntos. La versión final del cuestionario fue completada en dos ocasiones separadas por un mes (test-retest) por un grupo de 39 atletas de élite, con el objetivo de verificar la reproducibilidad en las respuestas a este cuestionario. RESULTADOS: la versión final del cuestionario, obtenida tras la validación de contenido, tiene 81 preguntas que recaban información sociodemográficay sobre motivos, frecuencia y condiciones de compra de suplementos deportivos. En el test-retest se comprobó una alta congruencia en todas las preguntas del cuestionario, sin diferencia estadística en ninguna de las respuestas en el test-retest. CONCLUSIÓN: el cuestionario derivado de este estudio cumple con los parámetros de validez y fiabilidad necesarios para la obtención de información vinculada al tipo y frecuencia en el uso de suplementos deportivos.

Validación de una encuesta para determinar la prevalencia en el uso de suplementos en deportistas de élite españoles / Validation of a questionnaire to study the prevalence of nutritional supplements used by elite Spanish athletes

Introducción: el uso de suplementos deportivos es una estrategia generalizada entre los deportistas de alto rendimiento. Sin embargo, no existe ningún cuestionario validado en castellano para determinar la prevalencia en el uso de suplementos deportivos en deportistas. Objetivo: el objetivo de esta investigación fue validar un cuestionario en castellano para estudiar la prevalencia del uso de suplementos deportivos. Material y métodos: en una primera fase, el cuestionario fue diseñado para recabar información sobre la frecuencia en el uso de cinco categorías de suplementos (estimulantes, potenciadores del rendimiento, suplementos para control de peso, "recuperadores" y medicamentos). Posteriormente, el contenido del cuestionario fue validado por un grupo de seis expertos que valoraron la pertinencia y claridad de cada pregunta del cuestionario en escalas de 1-10 puntos. La versión final del cuestionario fue completada en dos ocasiones separadas por un mes (test-retest) por un grupo de 39 atletas de élite, con el objetivo de verificar la reproducibilidad en las respuestas a este cuestionario. Resultados: la versión final del cuestionario, obtenida tras la validación de contenido, tiene 81 preguntas que recaban información sociodemográfica y sobre motivos, frecuencia y condiciones de compra de suplementos deportivos. En el test-retest se comprobó una alta congruencia en todas las preguntas del cuestionario, sin diferencia estadística en ninguna de las respuestas en el test-retest. Conclusión: el cuestionario derivado de este estudio cumple con los parámetros de validez y fiabilidad necesarios para la obtención de información vinculada al tipo y frecuencia en el uso de suplementos deportivos

Introduction: the use of dietary supplements is a widespread strategy performed by high-performance athletes worldwide. However, there is no validated questionnaire to determine the frequency and type of dietary supplements used by elite Spanish athletes. Objective: the purpose of this investigation was to test the validity of a questionnaire designed to assess the prevalence in the use of dietary supplements by elite Spanish athletes. Material and methods: initially, the questionnaire was designed to obtain information about the utilisation of five types of supplements (stimulants, ergogenic aids, supplements for weight control, supplements for improved recovery and medicines). Then, the validity of the questionnaire contents was evaluated by a group of six experts in dietary supplements who ranked the relevance and clarity of each question by using 1-10-point scales. The final version of the questionnaire was test-retested in a group of 39 elite athletes to verify the reproducibility in the answers reported in the questionnaire. Results: after the evaluation of the group of experts, the questionnaire was completed with 81 questions regarding sociodemographic information and data about motives and frequency and conditions of dietary supplements purchase. The test-retest of the questionnaire showed a high reliability in all the answers obtained in the test-retest. Conclusion: the questionnaire included in this investigation fulfilled the standards for the obtaining of valid and reproducible data regarding the prevalence in the use of dietary supplements by Spanish athletes

Thirteen years of the fight against doping in figures.

Every year, the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) publishes the main statistics reported by the accredited laboratories, which provide very valuable information for assessing changes in the patterns of doping in sports over time. Using the information provided since 2003 as the basis for the analysis, the evolution of doping/anti-doping figures over the last decade can be examined in reasonable detail, at least in reference to samples analyzed and categories of substances more commonly found in athletes' samples. This brief analysis of the WADA statistical reports leads us to the following outcomes: the increase in anti-doping pressure from 2003 to 2015, as evidenced by increased numbers of samples analyzed and banned substances, has not directly produced a higher frequency of adverse/atypical findings. Although this could be interpreted as steady state in the capacity to detect doping through this whole period, it also resulted in a significant increase in the absolute number of samples catalogued as doping (from 2247 in 2003 to 5912 in 2015). Anabolic agents have been the most common doping substances detected in all statistics reports while the remaining groups of substances are much less frequently found in doping control samples. Given that one might have expected the enhancement of the anti-doping programme led by WADA over this last decade to have increased the percentage of adverse/atypical findings, the fact that it did not might indicate the need to take another step in sampling strategies, such as 'more intelligent testing' based on the differences in the prevalence of doping substances among sports. Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Critical periods of increased fetal vulnerability to a maternal high fat diet.

BACKGROUND: Fetal adaptations to high fat (HF) diet in utero (IU) that may predispose to Metabolic Syndrome (MetS) in adulthood include changes in fetal hepatic gene expression. Studies were performed to determine whether maternal exposure to HF diet at different stages during pregnancy had different effects on the fetus, including hepatic gene expression. METHODS: Female wild type mice were fed either a HF or breeding chow (C) for 2 wks prior to mating. The experimental groups were composed of embryonic day (e) 18.5 fetuses obtained from WT female mice that were fed HF (HF, 35.5% fat) or breeding chow (C, 9.5% fat) for 2 wk before mating until e9.5 of pregnancy (periconception-midpregnancy). At e9.5 dams were switched to the opposite diet (C-HF or HF-C). RESULTS: Exposure to HF diet throughout pregnancy reduced maternal weight gain compared to C diet (p < 0.02 HF vs. C). HF-C dams had significantly decreased adiponectin levels and litter size when compared to C-HF (p < 0.02 HF-C vs C-HF). Independent of the timing of exposure to HF, fetal weight and length were significantly decreased when compared to C diet (HF, C-HF and HF-C vs. C p < 0.02). HF diet during the second half of pregnancy increased expression of genes in the fetal liver associated with fetal growth (C-HF vs C p < 0.001), glucose production (C-HF vs C p < 0.04), oxidative stress and inflammation (C-HF vs C p < 0.01) compared to C diet. CONCLUSIONS: This model defines that there are critical periods during gestation in which the fetus is actively shaped by the environment. Early exposure to a HF diet determines litter size while exposure to HF during the second half of pregnancy leads to dysregulation of expression of key genes responsible for fetal growth, hepatic glucose production and oxidative stress. These findings underscore the importance of future studies designed to clarify how these critical periods may influence future risk of developing MetS later in life.