Ultrasound contrast agents for ultrasound molecular imaging.

Ultrasound is a real-time imaging technique which is widely used in many clinical applications for its capacity to provide anatomic information with high spatial and temporal resolution. The advent of ultrasound contrast agents in combination with contrast-specific imaging modes has given access to perfusion assessments at an organ level, leading to an improved diagnostic accuracy. More recently, the development of biologically-targeted ultrasound contrast agents has expanded the role of ultrasound even further into molecular imaging applications. Ultrasound molecular imaging can be used to visualize the expression of intravascular markers, and to assess their local presence over time and/or during therapeutic treatment. Major applications are in the field of inflammation and neoangiogenesis due to the strictly intravascular presence of microbubbles. Various technologies have been investigated for attaching the targeting moiety to the shell from simple biotin-avidin constructs to more elaborated insertion within the shell through attachment to PEG residues. This important improvement has allowed a clinical translation of initial pre-clinical investigations, opening the way for an early detection and an accurate characterization of lesions in patients. The combination of anatomic, functional and molecular information/data provided by contrast ultrasound is a powerful tool which is still in its infancy due to the lack of agents suitable for clinical use. The advantages of ultrasound techniques combined with the molecular signature of lesions will represent a significant advance in imaging in the field of personalized medicine.

A phospholipid-PEG2000 conjugate of a vascular endothelial growth factor receptor 2 (VEGFR2)-targeting heterodimer peptide for contrast-enhanced ultrasound imaging of angiogenesis.

The transition of a targeted ultrasound contrast agent from animal imaging to testing in clinical studies requires considerable chemical development. The nature of the construct changes from an agent that is chemically attached to microbubbles to one where the targeting group is coupled to a phospholipid, for direct incorporation to the bubble surface. We provide an efficient method to attach a heterodimeric peptide to a pegylated phospholipid and show that the resulting construct retains nanomolar affinity for its target, vascular endothelial growth factor receptor 2 (VEGFR2), for both the human (kinase insert domain-containing receptor - KDR) and the mouse (fetal liver kinase 1 - Flk-1) receptors. The purified phospholipid-PEG-peptide isolated from TFA-based eluents is not stable with respect to hydrolysis of the fatty ester moieties. This leads to the time-dependent formation of the lysophospholipid and the phosphoglycerylamide derived from the degradation of the product. Purification of the product using neutral eluent systems provides a stable product. Methods to prepare the lysophospholipid (hydrolysis product) are also included. Biacore binding data demonstrated the retention of binding of the lipopeptide to the KDR receptor. The phospholipid-PEG2000-peptide is smoothly incorporated into gas-filled microbubbles and provides imaging of angiogenesis in a rat tumor model.

Grafting of abciximab to a microbubble-based ultrasound contrast agent for targeting to platelets expressing GP IIb/IIIa - characterization and in vitro testing.

Abciximab-grafted ultrasound sensitive microbubbles were developed for the diagnosis of stroke. The antibody fragment abciximab, which binds to the GP IIb/IIIa and alpha v beta 3 receptors expressed by activated platelets, was chosen because most ischemic strokes are due to arterial thrombi that are mainly composed of platelets. The abciximab antibody fragment was activated by reduction of the disulfide bond for grafting on the microbubbles. The suspension was freeze-dried after the grafting was performed directly on the formed microbubbles. Quantification of the amounts of abciximab present on the surface of the microbubbles was assessed semi-quantitatively by flow cytometry, and quantitatively using radio-labeled abciximab. A protocol for human and rat platelets deposition and fixation was implemented and the expression of the GP IIb/IIIa receptor was validated by immunostaining. The abciximab-grafted microbubbles showed high static and dynamic binding to fixed platelets. Detection by ultrasonography of microbubbles bound on white and red clots gave higher signals compared to Sono Vue microbubbles.

Phase coexistence in gallium nanoparticles controlled by electron excitation.

In gallium nanoparticles 100 nm in diameter grown on the tip of an optical fiber from an atomic beam we observed equilibrium coexistence of gamma, beta, and liquid structural phases that can be controlled by e-beam excitation in a highly reversible and reproducible fashion. With 2 keV electrons only 1 pJ of excitation energy per nanoparticle is needed to exercise control, with the equilibrium phase achieved in less than a few tenths of a microsecond. The transformations between coexisting phases are accompanied by a continuous change in the nanoparticle film's reflectivity.

Oscillating bubbles at the tips of optical fibers in liquid nitrogen.

We report that a bubble with a radius of a few micrometers may be created at a precise location on a metal-coated optical fiber tip immersed in liquid nitrogen by microsecond optical pulses with peak powers of less than 20 mW. Dynamic optical measurements reveal that after termination of the optical pulse the bubble exhibits stable oscillations for several tens of microseconds, at frequencies up to several megahertz, as it slowly collapses.

Detection of experimental hepatic tumors using long circulating superparamagnetic particles.

RATIONALE AND OBJECTIVES: To evaluate the potential of an iron oxide-based MR contrast agent for the detection and delineation of experimental liver tumors during the early vascular phase of the compound. METHODS: Superparamagnetic blood pool agent (SBPA) was administered intravenously to rabbits bearing VX2 tumors. Images were acquired before the injection, immediately after, and 1 or 3 weeks later. The variations of signal intensity were measured in the tumors and in several tissues for various T1-weighted spin-echo, T2-weighted fast spin-echo, and T2-weighted gradient-recalled-echo sequences. RESULTS: Fourteen and 12 of the 16 tumors were detected immediately after SBPA injection using, respectively, the T2-weighted fast spin-echo and T2-weighted gradient-recalled-echo sequences. A significant decrease in signal intensity was observed in well-perfused organs, and blood signal was abolished even at the lowest injected dose and using a T1-weighted sequence. In the late phase, the loss in signal intensity of the liver was even more pronounced. CONCLUSION: The dominant T2 effect of SBPA induces an increase in the tumor-to-liver and tumor-to-blood contrast during the vascular phase, improving the detection of the tumors and allowing the distinction between small lesions and vessels through plane. This effect on the liver signal persists for several days because of the incorporation of SBPA in the reticuloendothelial system.

Long circulating superparamagnetic particles with high T2 relaxivity.

Novel superparamagnetic particles coated with a phospholipid and a surfactant were characterized and evaluated in vivo. These particles (SBPA) were shown to exhibit r2 relaxivities in the range of 350-450 mM-1.s-1, r1 values of 8-12 mM-1.s-1 and sizes of 50-80 nm. Preliminary results of pharmacokinetics were obtained in rats following the administration of 59Fe-labelled preparations. The particles were shown to remain for hours in the blood stream before being cleared mainly by the liver. Most of 59Fe was eliminated from the body and recovered in the feces within a week. These biodistribution and elimination properties deserve more detailed studies and suggest the potential use of this product as a blood pool contrast agent.

The Epstein-Barr virus-binding site on CD21 is involved in CD23 binding and interleukin-4-induced IgE and IgG4 production by human B cells.

Human CD21 has previously been described as a receptor for the C3d,g and iC3b proteins of complement, as a receptor for the gp350/220 envelope glycoprotein of the Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) and also as a receptor for inerferon-alpha (IFN-alpha). Structurally, CD21 consists of 15 to 16 short consensus repeats (SCR) of 60 to 75 amino acids followed by a transmembrane domain and an intracytoplasmic region. We reported that CD23, a low-affinity receptor for IgE (Fc epsilon R2), is a new functional ligand for CD21. We recently found that the sites of interaction of CD23 on CD21 are on SCR 5 to 8 and 1-2. The first site is a lectin-sugar type of interaction and the second site is a protein-protein interaction. We report here that amongst the other ligands for CD21 (EBV, C3d,g and IFN-alpha), only EBV is able to inhibit the binding of CD23 to CD21. Furthermore, even a peptide from gp350/220 of EBV known to bind to CD21 is able to decrease CD23 binding to CD21. Since CD23/CD21 pairing is important in the control of IgE production, we tested the effect of the EBV-derived peptide on immunoglobulin production from peripheral blood mononuclear cells and purified tonsillar B cells. Interestingly, the EBV-peptide inhibited IgE and IgG4 production induced by interleukin-4, in a dose-dependent manner. The same results were obtained using either peripheral blood mononuclear cells or purified tonsillar B cells. Another CD21 ligand, C3, did not affect binding of CD23 to CD21 nor the production of IgE and IgG4. This study indicates that blocking CD23 binding to CD21 SCR 2 on human B cells selectively modulates immunoglobulin production.

CD23 interacts with a new functional extracytoplasmic domain involving N-linked oligosaccharides on CD21.

Human CD21 has been described as a receptor for the C3d,g and iC3b proteins of complement, for the Epstein-Barr virus, and also for IFN-alpha. We reported recently that CD23, a low affinity receptor for IgE (Fc epsilon R2), is a new functional ligand for CD21. To determine the site of interaction of CD23 on CD21, we analyzed the ability of purified recombinant CD23 incorporated into fluorescent liposomes to bind CD21 mutants bearing various deletions of extracytoplasmic short consensus repeats (SCRs). We found that the site of interaction of CD23 on CD21 is on SCRs 5 to 8, with contribution of SCRs 1 and 2. Tunicamycin treatment of CD21-transfected K562 cells strongly inhibited the binding of CD23-liposomes, suggesting that an N-linked sugar, present on SCRs 5 to 8, is involved in the CD23/CD21 interaction. By mutating together or individually, the three asparagines present on SCRs 5 to 8, asparagines (Asn) 370 and 295, but not Asn 492, were shown to be involved critically in the binding of CD23. Furthermore, we mapped the binding sites of a panel of anti-CD21 mAbs and found that at least six epitopes can be detected on CD21. The mAbs that inhibit the most CD23 binding to CD21 map in SCRs 5 to 8. This study indicates that SCRs 5 to 8 represent a novel functional domain on the CD21 molecule, and is the first demonstration of an activity of an extracytoplasmic region of the CD21 outside of SCRs 1 to 4.

Stimulation of human IgE production by a subset of anti-CD21 monoclonal antibodies: requirement of a co-signal to modulate epsilon transcripts.

CD21, the receptor for Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) and the complement receptor-2 (CR2), was recently found to interact specifically with CD23, a low-affinity receptor for IgE, and to regulate IgE production. Therefore, the effect of different anti-CD21 monoclonal antibodies (mAb) on IgE synthesis by blood mononuclear cells was investigated. One anti-CD21 mAb, BU-33, was able to increase significantly (more than threefold) interleukin-4 (IL-4)-induced IgE synthesis, whereas HB-5, OKB-7 and B2 anti-CD21 mAb had no effect. BU-33 had no effect on IgG and IgA production and produced only a moderate increase in IgM production. Recombinant, 29,000 MW, soluble CD23 (sCD23) expressed in COS cells exhibited the same IgE-enhancing activity. BU-33 was the best inhibitor of CD23-liposome binding to the CD21-positive cell line RPMI-8226 when compared to the other anti-CD21 mAb tested. BU-33 identified a different epitope on CD21. The effect of BU-33 on IgE production by purified tonsillar B cells and highly purified germinal centre B cells, was dependent on the presence of T cells or anti-CD40 mAb stimulation. Molecular analysis revealed that BU-33 alone failed to induce germline epsilon mRNA but increased the IL-4-induced germline epsilon transcription levels. Moreover, BU-33 had a synergistic effect on anti-CD40 mAb or T-cell-induced productive epsilon transcript expression. These results therefore indicate that the CD23-CD21 interaction needs a co-signal for B-cell differentiation towards IgE production.

CD21 expressed on basophilic cells is involved in histamine release triggered by CD23 and anti-CD21 antibodies.

Recombinant full-length human CD23 incorporated into fluorescent liposomes was used to detect a ligand for CD23 on the basophilic leukemia cell line, KU 812. Based on our recent finding that CD23 interacts with CD21 on subsets of B and T cells, we investigated if the same ligand was involved on KU 812 cells. An anti-CD21 monoclonal antibody (mAb) BU-33, was able to totally block CD23-liposome binding to KU 812 cells. Moreover, KU 812 cells express CD21 mRNA and have a cell surface molecule that reacts with anti-CD21 mAb. The CD23/CD21 interaction was not merely physical but was also associated with an increase in histamine release by KU 812 cells. Both recombinant soluble CD23 and an anti-CD21 mAb-mediated effect on histamine release was not restricted to and anti-CD21 mAb-mediated effect on histamine release was not restricted to the leukemic cell line, but was also observed with normal human blood basophils. These data demonstrate that CD21 is expressed on basophilic cells and that CD21 controls histamine production upon ligand-induced stimulation (CD23 or anti-CD21 mAb).

Site-specific conjugation of a radioiodinated phenethylamine derivative to a monoclonal antibody results in increased radioactivity localization in tumor.

The preparation of a novel radioiodination reagent, the (aminooxy)acetyl derivative of (p-[125]-iodophenyl)ethylamine, is described. Conventional radioiodination of proteins involves the formation of iodotyrosine residues, but for in vivo applications such as thyroid or stomach immunoscintigraphy, the susceptibility of these residues to tissue dehalogenases constitutes a serious disadvantage. Using our new compound, which has a particularly nonreactive aromatic ring, we confirm and extend studies published by other workers indicating the much greater in vivo stability of iodophenyl compounds compared to the more conventional iodophenolic ones. In addition, the aminooxy group of our reagent gives a stable and specific linkage to aldehyde groups formed by periodate oxidation on the sugar moiety of antibody molecules. In vitro, favorable binding activity and high stability was obtained with a (([125I]iodoaryl)amino)oxy labeled monoclonal antibody directed against carcinoembryonic antigen. In vivo, using paired labeling experiments in nude mice bearing colon carcinoma xenografts, the (([125I]iodoaryl)amino)oxy-MAb (MAb = monoclonal antibody) was compared with the same MAb 131I-labeled by conventional chloramine-T method. Tumor 125I concentration of (arylamino)oxy MAb (measured as percent injected dose per gram) was significantly higher as compared to values obtained with a conventionally labeled 131I antibody. Additionally, thyroid uptake, an indicator of iodine release from the antibody, was up to 25 times lower after injection of 125I-MAb obtained by the new method as compared to the conventionally iodinated 131I-MAb.

A new pair of surface molecules involved in human IgE regulation.

The molecules controlling IgE production are the subject of intense study in the effort to find new ways to treat allergic diseases. One candidate, the CD23 molecule, a low affinity receptor for IgE, was recently identified to interact with another molecule, named CD21, in the regulation of IgE production.

Partial characterization of natural and recombinant human soluble CD23.

The purification to homogeneity of an active soluble 25 kDa fragment of CD23, produced in insect cells using the baculovirus expression system, is described. Peptide mapping and analysis by Edman degradation and mass spectrometry permitted partial characterization of the protein. A total of 165 out of 172 residues, including N-terminal and C-terminal regions, were mapped. The positions of the two disulphide bonds in the IgE-binding region were also determined: residue 110 is joined to residue 124, and residue 42 to residue 133. Natural CD23 25 kDa fragment was also analysed and found to possess the same disulphide bond arrangement. These results extend the previously noted sequence similarity with lectins to elements of secondary structure.

CD21 is a ligand for CD23 and regulates IgE production.

The molecule CD23, a low-affinity receptor for IgE (Fc epsilon R2), is a type II transmembrane molecule expressed on many haemopoietic cell types. CD23 has pleiotropic roles in the control of lymphocyte behaviour, suggesting that CD23 may interact with another ligand in addition to IgE. To identify such a CD23 ligand, we expressed and purified full-length recombinant CD23, incorporated it into fluorescent liposomes and used these as a probe. We report here that fluorescent liposomes carrying CD23 interact specifically with the cell-surface protein CD21, identified as the receptor for Epstein-Barr virus and the complement receptor-2 on B cells, some T cells and follicular dendritic cells. In addition, fluorescent CD23-liposomes were shown to bind to hamster kidney cells (BHK-21) transfected with CD21 complementary DNA. The interaction between fluorescent CD23-liposomes and B cells or CD21-transfected BHK-21 cells was specifically inhibited by anti-CD21 and anti-CD23 monoclonal antibodies. Western blotting analysis revealed that 14C-labelled liposomes carrying CD23, in contrast to anti-CD21 antibodies, reacted with a subtype of CD21 molecules. Triggering of CD21 either with an anti-CD21 antibody or with recombinant soluble CD23 was shown to increase specifically interleukin-4-induced IgE production from blood mononuclear cells. These results demonstrate that the cell-surface protein CD21 is a ligand for CD23 and that the pairing of these molecules may participate in the control of IgE production.

Demonstration of a second ligand for the low affinity receptor for immunoglobulin E (CD23) using recombinant CD23 reconstituted into fluorescent liposomes.

Recombinant full-length human CD23 has been incorporated into fluorescent liposomes to demonstrate the existence of a ligand for CD23 that is different from the previously known ligand, immunoglobulin E (IgE). The novel ligand for CD23 is expressed on subsets of normal T cells and B cells as well as on some myeloma cell lines. The interaction of full-length CD23 with its ligand is specifically inhibited by anti-CD23 monoclonal antibodies and by IgE, and it is Ca2+ dependent. Moreover, tunicamycin treatment of a CD23-binding cell line, RPMI 8226, significantly reduced the binding of CD23 incorporated into fluorescent liposomes, and a sugar, fucose-1-phosphate, was found to inhibit CD23-liposome binding to RPMI 8226 cells, suggesting the contribution of sugar structures on the CD23 ligand. In addition, CD23-transfected COS cells were shown to form specific conjugates with the cell line RPMI 8226. These data demonstrate that CD23 interacts with a ligand, which is different from IgE, and that CD23 can be considered as a new surface adhesion molecule involved in cell-cell interactions.

Purification and characterization of biologically active human recombinant 37 kDa soluble CD23 (sFc epsilon RII) expressed in insect cells.

Human recombinant soluble 37 kDa CD23 has been expressed in insect cells and secreted into the culture medium using the IL-2 leader sequence. The 37 kDa CD23 was purified 600-fold to homogeneity by monoclonal antibody affinity chromatography and gel filtration. The pure protein is monomeric, glycosylated, depleted of one N terminal amino acid and contains four disulphide bonds. It degrades into smaller fragments of 33, 29 and 25 kDa if purified in the absence of protease inhibitors. The same pattern of proteolytic fragments is observed when the pure preparation is incubated at room temperature for 3 weeks. Physical characterization of the 37 kDa CD23 by circular dichroism indicates that the protein contains mainly beta sheet and 20% of alpha helical structures. Specific binding of IgE to natural CD23 (low affinity IgE receptor) was inhibited by purified recombinant 37 kDa CD23. Moreover, purified recombinant 37kDa CD23 and interleukin-1 promoted the survival of germinal centre B cells.