Progressive alteration of murine bladder elasticity in actinic cystitis detected by Brillouin microscopy.

Bladder mechanical properties are critical for organ function and tissue homeostasis. Therefore, alterations of tissue mechanics are linked to disease onset and progression. This study aims to characterize the tissue elasticity of the murine bladder wall considering its different anatomical components, both in healthy conditions and in actinic cystitis, a state characterized by tissue fibrosis. Here, we exploit Brillouin microscopy, an emerging technique in the mechanobiology field that allows mapping tissue mechanics at the microscale, in non-contact mode and free of labeling. We show that Brillouin imaging of bladder tissues is able to recognize the different anatomical components of the bladder wall, confirmed by histopathological analysis, showing different tissue mechanical properties of the physiological bladder, as well as a significant alteration in the presence of tissue fibrosis. Our results point out the potential use of Brillouin imaging on clinically relevant samples as a complementary technique to histopathological analysis, deciphering complex mechanical alteration of each tissue layer of an organ that strongly relies on mechanical properties to perform its function.

Reliable, standardized measurements for cell mechanical properties.

Atomic force microscopy (AFM) has become indispensable for studying biological and medical samples. More than two decades of experiments have revealed that cancer cells are softer than healthy cells (for measured cells cultured on stiff substrates). The softness or, more precisely, the larger deformability of cancer cells, primarily independent of cancer types, could be used as a sensitive marker of pathological changes. The wide application of biomechanics in clinics would require designing instruments with specific calibration, data collection, and analysis procedures. For these reasons, such development is, at present, still very limited, hampering the clinical exploitation of mechanical measurements. Here, we propose a standardized operational protocol (SOP), developed within the EU ITN network Phys2BioMed, which allows the detection of the biomechanical properties of living cancer cells regardless of the nanoindentation instruments used (AFMs and other indenters) and the laboratory involved in the research. We standardized the cell cultures, AFM calibration, measurements, and data analysis. This effort resulted in a step-by-step SOP for cell cultures, instrument calibration, measurements, and data analysis, leading to the concordance of the results (Young's modulus) measured among the six EU laboratories involved. Our results highlight the importance of the SOP in obtaining a reproducible mechanical characterization of cancer cells and paving the way toward exploiting biomechanics for diagnostic purposes in clinics.

Correlation between biological and mechanical properties of extracellular matrix from colorectal peritoneal metastases in human tissues.

Peritoneal metastases (PM) are common routes of dissemination for colorectal cancer (CRC) and remain a lethal disease with a poor prognosis. The properties of the extracellular matrix (ECM) are important in cancer development; studying their changes is crucial to understand CRC-PM development. We studied the elastic properties of ECMs derived from human samples of normal and neoplastic PM by atomic force microscopy (AFM); results were correlated with patient clinical data and expression of ECM components related to metastatic spread. We show that PM progression is accompanied by stiffening of the ECM, increased cancer associated fibroblasts (CAF) activity and increased deposition and crosslinking in neoplastic matrices; on the other hand, softer regions are also found in neoplastic ECMs on the same scales. Our results support the hypothesis that local changes in the normal ECM can create the ground for growth and spread from the tumour of invading metastatic cells. We have found correlations between the mechanical properties (relative stiffening between normal and neoplastic ECM) of the ECM and patients' clinical data, like age, sex, presence of protein activating mutations in BRAF and KRAS genes and tumour grade. Our findings suggest that the mechanical phenotyping of PM-ECM has the potential to predict tumour development.

Decellularized extracellular matrix as scaffold for cancer organoid cultures of colorectal peritoneal metastases.

Peritoneal metastases (PM) from colorectal cancer (CRC) are associated with poor survival. The extracellular matrix (ECM) plays a fundamental role in modulating the homing of CRC metastases to the peritoneum. The mechanisms underlying the interactions between metastatic cells and the ECM, however, remain poorly understood, and the number of in vitro models available for the study of the peritoneal metastatic process is limited. Here, we show that decellularized ECM of the peritoneal cavity allows the growth of organoids obtained from PM, favoring the development of three-dimensional (3D) nodules that maintain the characteristics of in vivo PM. Organoids preferentially grow on scaffolds obtained from neoplastic peritoneum, which are characterized by greater stiffness than normal scaffolds. A gene expression analysis of organoids grown on different substrates reflected faithfully the clinical and biological characteristics of the organoids. An impact of the ECM on the response to standard chemotherapy treatment for PM was also observed. The ex vivo 3D model, obtained by combining patient-derived decellularized ECM with organoids to mimic the metastatic niche, could be an innovative tool to develop new therapeutic strategies in a biologically relevant context to personalize treatments.

Interaction of imidazolium-based ionic liquids with supported phospholipid bilayers as model biomembranes.

The cytotoxicity of ionic liquids (ILs) has been receiving attention in the context of the biological and environmental impact of their vast field of applications. It has been ascertained that the cell membrane is the main target of ILs when they interact with microorganisms, cells and bacteria; nevertheless, studies at the micro- and nano-scale aiming at better understanding of the fundamental mechanisms of toxicity of ILs are lacking. In this work, we used atomic force microscopy (AFM) to investigate the impact of room-temperature ILs on the mechanical, morphological and electrostatic properties of solid-supported DOPC phospholipid bilayers, taken as models of biomembranes. In particular, we have characterized the concentration-dependent and time-dependent evolution of the morphological, structural and mechanical properties of DOPC lipid membranes in the presence of imidazolium-based ILs with different alkyl chain lengths and hydrophilic/hydrophobic characteristics. The majority of ILs investigated were found to possess the ability of restructuring the lipid bilayer, through the formation of new IL/lipid complexes, showing distinctive morphological features (increase of area and roughness). The nanomechanical analysis of the lipid membrane exposed to ILs revealed a progressive, concentration-dependent perturbation of the structural ordering and rigidity of the membrane, evidenced by a decrease in the breakthrough force, Young's modulus and area stretching modulus. AFM detected a modification of the electrostatic double-layer at the membrane surface, in terms of a reduction of the original negative surface charge density, suggesting a progressive stratification of cations on the exposed leaflet of the lipid membrane. Our findings may be helpful in designing novel ILs with tailored interaction with biological membranes.

The glycocalyx affects the mechanotransductive perception of the topographical microenvironment.

The cell/microenvironment interface is the starting point of integrin-mediated mechanotransduction, but many details of mechanotransductive signal integration remain elusive due to the complexity of the involved (extra)cellular structures, such as the glycocalyx. We used nano-bio-interfaces reproducing the complex nanotopographical features of the extracellular matrix to analyse the glycocalyx impact on PC12 cell mechanosensing at the nanoscale (e.g., by force spectroscopy with functionalised probes). Our data demonstrates that the glycocalyx configuration affects spatio-temporal nanotopography-sensitive mechanotransductive events at the cell/microenvironment interface. Opposing effects of major glycocalyx removal were observed, when comparing flat and specific nanotopographical conditions. The excessive retrograde actin flow speed and force loading are strongly reduced on certain nanotopographies upon strong reduction of the native glycocalyx, while on the flat substrate we observe the opposite trend. Our results highlight the importance of the glycocalyx configuration in a molecular clutch force loading-dependent cellular mechanism for mechanosensing of microenvironmental nanotopographical features.

Foreword to the special issue on different approaches to force spectroscopy in the research of cell pathologies.

Atomic force microscopy (AFM) and atomic force spectroscopy (AFS) constantly develop to address the detailed description of biophysical changes occurring during cell pathologies. Although AFM is still not a clinical diagnostic tool, it provides invaluable information on the transition of cells from physiological to pathological states. This special issue on "Different approaches to force spectroscopy in the research of cell pathologies" covers some of the latest scientific reports created to bring AFM closer to diagnosing pathology in biological material.

WITHDRAWN: Foreword to the special issue on different approaches to force spectroscopy in the research of cell pathologies.

The Publisher regrets that this article is an accidental duplication of an article that has already been published in Micron, Volume 161, October 2022, 103325, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.micron.2022.103325. The duplicate article has therefore been withdrawn. The full Elsevier Policy on Article Withdrawal can be found at https://www.elsevier.com/about/our-business/policies/article-withdrawal.

Force Sensing on Cells and Tissues by Atomic Force Microscopy.

Biosensors are aimed at detecting tiny physical and chemical stimuli in biological systems. Physical forces are ubiquitous, being implied in all cellular processes, including cell adhesion, migration, and differentiation. Given the strong interplay between cells and their microenvironment, the extracellular matrix (ECM) and the structural and mechanical properties of the ECM play an important role in the transmission of external stimuli to single cells within the tissue. Vice versa, cells themselves also use self-generated forces to probe the biophysical properties of the ECM. ECM mechanics influence cell fate, regulate tissue development, and show peculiar features in health and disease conditions of living organisms. Force sensing in biological systems is therefore crucial to dissecting and understanding complex biological processes, such as mechanotransduction. Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM), which can both sense and apply forces at the nanoscale, with sub-nanonewton sensitivity, represents an enabling technology and a crucial experimental tool in biophysics and mechanobiology. In this work, we report on the application of AFM to the study of biomechanical fingerprints of different components of biological systems, such as the ECM, the whole cell, and cellular components, such as the nucleus, lamellipodia and the glycocalyx. We show that physical observables such as the (spatially resolved) Young's Modulus (YM) of elasticity of ECMs or cells, and the effective thickness and stiffness of the glycocalyx, can be quantitatively characterized by AFM. Their modification can be correlated to changes in the microenvironment, physio-pathological conditions, or gene regulation.

Stiffening of DU145 prostate cancer cells driven by actin filaments - microtubule crosstalk conferring resistance to microtubule-targeting drugs.

The crucial role of microtubules in the mitotic-related segregation of chromosomes makes them an excellent target for anticancer microtubule targeting drugs (MTDs) such as vinflunine (VFL), colchicine (COL), and docetaxel (DTX). MTDs affect mitosis by directly perturbing the structural organisation of microtubules. By a direct assessment of the biomechanical properties of prostate cancer DU145 cells exposed to different MTDs using atomic force microscopy, we show that cell stiffening is a response to the application of all the studied MTDs (VFL, COL, DTX). Changes in cellular rigidity are typically attributed to remodelling of the actin filaments in the cytoskeleton. Here, we demonstrate that cell stiffening can be driven by crosstalk between actin filaments and microtubules in MTD-treated cells. Our findings improve the interpretation of biomechanical data obtained for living cells in studies of various physiological and pathological processes.

Nanostructure Determines the Wettability of Gold Surfaces by Ionic Liquid Ultrathin Films.

Ionic liquids are employed in energy storage/harvesting devices, in catalysis and biomedical technologies, due to their tunable bulk and interfacial properties. In particular, the wettability and the structuring of the ionic liquids at the interface are of paramount importance for all those applications exploiting ionic liquids tribological properties, their double layer organization at electrified interfaces, and interfacial chemical reactions. Here we report an experimental investigation of the wettability and organization at the interface of an imidazolium-based ionic liquid ([Bmim][NTf2]) and gold surfaces, that are widely used as electrodes in energy devices, electronics, fluidics. In particular, we investigated the role of the nanostructure on the resulting interfacial interactions between [Bmim][NTf2] and atom-assembled or cluster-assembled gold thin films. Our results highlight the presence of the solid-like structured ionic liquid domains extending several tens of nanometres far from the gold interfaces, and characterized by different lateral extension, according to the wettability of the gold nanostructures by the IL liquid-phase.

Micropatterning of Substrates for the Culture of Cell Networks by Stencil-Assisted Additive Nanofabrication.

The fabrication of in vitro neuronal cell networks where cells are chemically or electrically connected to form functional circuits with useful properties is of great interest. Standard cell culture substrates provide ensembles of cells that scarcely reproduce physiological structures since their spatial organization and connectivity cannot be controlled. Supersonic Cluster Beam Deposition (SCBD) has been used as an effective additive method for the large-scale fabrication of interfaces with extracellular matrix-mimicking surface nanotopography and reproducible morphological properties for cell culture. Due to the high collimation of SCBD, it is possible to exploit stencil masks for the fabrication of patterned films and reproduce features as small as tens of micrometers. Here, we present a protocol to fabricate micropatterned cell culture substrates based on the deposition of nanostructured cluster-assembled zirconia films by stencil-assisted SCBD. The effectiveness of this approach is demonstrated by the fabrication of micrometric patterns able to confine primary astrocytes. Calcium waves propagating in the astrocyte networks are shown.

Distinct extracellular-matrix remodeling events precede symptoms of inflammation.

Identification of early processes leading to complex tissue pathologies, such as inflammatory bowel diseases, poses a major scientific and clinical challenge that is imperative for improved diagnosis and treatment. Most studies of inflammation onset focus on cellular processes and signaling molecules, while overlooking the environment in which they take place, the continuously remodeled extracellular matrix. In this study, we used colitis models for investigating extracellular-matrix dynamics during disease onset, while treating the matrix as a complete and defined entity. Through the analysis of matrix structure, stiffness and composition, we unexpectedly revealed that even prior to the first clinical symptoms, the colon displays its own unique extracellular-matrix signature and found specific markers of clinical potential, which were also validated in human subjects. We also show that the emergence of this pre-symptomatic matrix is mediated by subclinical infiltration of immune cells bearing remodeling enzymes. Remarkably, whether the inflammation is chronic or acute, its matrix signature converges at pre-symptomatic states. We suggest that the existence of a pre-symptomatic extracellular-matrix is general and relevant to a wide range of diseases.

Large colloidal probes for atomic force microscopy: Fabrication and calibration issues.

Atomic force microscopy (AFM) is a powerful tool to investigate interaction forces at the micro and nanoscale. Cantilever stiffness, dimensions and geometry of the tip can be chosen according to the requirements of the specific application, in terms of spatial resolution and force sensitivity. Colloidal probes (CPs), obtained by attaching a spherical particle to a tipless (TL) cantilever, offer several advantages for accurate force measurements: tunable and well-characterisable radius; higher averaging capabilities (at the expense of spatial resolution) and sensitivity to weak interactions; a well-defined interaction geometry (sphere on flat), which allows accurate and reliable data fitting by means of analytical models. The dynamics of standard AFM probes has been widely investigated, and protocols have been developed for the calibration of the cantilever spring constant. Nevertheless, the dynamics of CPs, and in particular of large CPs, with radius well above 10 µm and mass comparable, or larger, than the cantilever mass, is at present still poorly characterized. Here we describe the fabrication and calibration of (large) CPs. We describe and discuss the peculiar dynamical behaviour of CPs, and present an alternative protocol for the accurate calibration of the spring constant.

Nanoscale-Induced Formation of Silicide around Gold Nanoparticles Encapsulated in a-Si.

Decorating thin-film solar cells with plasmonic nanoparticles is being pursued in order to improve device efficiency through increased scattering and local field enhancement. Gold nanoparticles are particularly interesting due to their chemical inertness and plasmon resonance in the visible range of the spectrum. In this work, gold nanoparticles fabricated by a gas aggregation nanoparticle source and embedded in a-Si (a commercial solar cell material) are studied using X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, transmission electron microscopy, electron energy-loss spectroscopy, and energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy. The formation of gold silicide around the nanoparticles is investigated, as it has important consequences for the optical and electronic properties of the structures. Different from previous studies, in which the silicide formation is observed for gold nanoparticles and thin films grown on top of crystalline silicon or silica, it is found that silicide formation is largely enhanced around the nanoparticles, owing to their increased surface/volume ratio. A detailed gold silicide formation mechanism is presented based on the results, and strategies for optimizing the design of plasmonically enhanced solar cells with gold nanoparticles encapsulated in a-Si are discussed.

Mechanotransduction in neuronal cell development and functioning.

Although many details remain still elusive, it became increasingly evident in recent years that mechanosensing of microenvironmental biophysical cues and subsequent mechanotransduction are strongly involved in the regulation of neuronal cell development and functioning. This review gives an overview about the current understanding of brain and neuronal cell mechanobiology and how it impacts on neurogenesis, neuronal migration, differentiation, and maturation. We will focus particularly on the events in the cell/microenvironment interface and the decisive extracellular matrix (ECM) parameters (i.e. rigidity and nanometric spatial organisation of adhesion sites) that modulate integrin adhesion complex-based mechanosensing and mechanotransductive signalling. It will also be outlined how biomaterial approaches mimicking essential ECM features help to understand these processes and how they can be used to control and guide neuronal cell behaviour by providing appropriate biophysical cues. In addition, principal biophysical methods will be highlighted that have been crucial for the study of neuronal mechanobiology.

Solid-Like Ordering of Imidazolium-Based Ionic Liquids at Rough Nanostructured Oxidized Silicon Surfaces.

The investigation of ionic liquids (ILs) confined in a solid porous matrix is of particular interest considering that these substances are increasingly used as an electrolyte in devices employing nanostructured nanoporous materials for the electrodes. Furthermore, the confinement of the ILs into a porous matrix would allow overcoming the difficulties of their packaging, leakage, and portability. In order to support the applications, a deeper understanding of the interaction of ILs with the nanoporous solid material and its increased interface is required. In this work, we report on the modification of morphological and mechanical properties of the imidazolium-based [Bmim][NTf2] IL upon surface spatial confinement on a cluster-assembled, nanostructured, rough, oxidized silicon (ns-SiOx) surface. An atomic force microscopy investigation revealed that upon the interaction with the ns-SiOx film, [Bmim][NTf2] locally rearranges into ordered, layered, stiff, and poorly conducting solid-like domains, coexisting with, and embedded into, the liquid IL film. The observed interfacial layering of [Bmim][NTf2] deposited on ns-SiOx suggests that the behavior of the IL-electrode interface in photoelectrochemical devices employing nanostructured nanoporous materials can be far more complex than expected under the hypothesis of an IL-based electrolyte in the stable liquid phase. The observed effects reported in this work could in principle also occur inside the bulk nanoporous matrix, where they could be further amplified by the extreme spatial confinement.

Author Correction: Cluster-assembled zirconia substrates promote long-term differentiation and functioning of human islets of Langerhans.

A correction to this article has been published and is linked from the HTML and PDF versions of this paper. The error has not been fixed in the paper.

Imidazolium-Based Ionic Liquids Affect Morphology and Rigidity of Living Cells: An Atomic Force Microscopy Study.

The study of the toxicity, biocompatibility, and environmental sustainability of room-temperature ionic liquids (ILs) is still in its infancy. Understanding the impact of ILs on living organisms, especially from the aquatic ecosystem, is urgent, since large amounts of these substances are starting to be employed as solvents in industrial chemical processes, and on the other side, evidence of toxic effects of ILs on microorganisms and single cells have been observed. To date, the toxicity of ILs has been investigated by means of macroscopic assays aimed at characterizing the effective concentrations (like the EC50) that cause the death of a significant fraction of the population of microorganisms and cells. These studies allow us to identify the cell membrane as the first target of the IL interaction, whose effectiveness was correlated to the lipophilicity of the cation, i.e., to the length of the lateral alkyl chain. Our study aimed at investigating the molecular mechanisms underpinning the interaction of ILs with living cells. To this purpose, we carried out a combined topographic and mechanical analysis by atomic force microscopy of living breast metastatic cancer cells (MDA-MB-231) upon interaction with imidazolium-based ILs. We showed that ILs are able to induce modifications of the overall rigidity (effective Young's modulus) and morphology of the cells. Our results demonstrate that ILs act on the physical properties of the outer cell layer (the membrane linked to the actin cytoskeleton), already at concentrations below the EC50. These potentially toxic effects are stronger at higher IL concentrations, as well as with longer lateral chains in the cation.