Unravelling the convoluted and dynamic interphasial mechanisms on Li metal anodes.

Accurate understanding of the chemistry of solid-electrolyte interphase (SEI) is key to developing new electrolytes for high-energy batteries using lithium metal (Li0) anodes1. SEI is generally believed to be formed by the reactions between Li0 and electrolyte2,3. However, our new study shows this is not the whole story. Through synchrotron-based X-ray diffraction and pair distribution function analysis, we reveal a much more convoluted formation mechanism of SEI, which receives considerable contributions from electrolyte, cathode, moisture and native surface species on Li0, with highly dynamic nature during cycling. Using isotope labelling, we traced the origin of LiH to electrolyte solvent, moisture and a new source: the native surface species (LiOH) on pristine Li0. When lithium accessibility is very limited as in the case of anode-free cells, LiOH develops into plate-shaped large crystals during cycling. Alternatively, when the lithium source is abundant, as in the case of Li||NMC811 cells, LiOH reacts with Li0 to form LiH and Li2O. While the desired anion-derived LiF-rich SEI is typically found in the concentrated electrolytes or their derivatives, we found it can also be formed in low-concentration electrolyte via the crosstalk effect, emphasizing the importance of formation cycle protocol and opening up opportunities for low-cost electrolyte development.

Compositionally complex doping for zero-strain zero-cobalt layered cathodes.

The high volatility of the price of cobalt and the geopolitical limitations of cobalt mining have made the elimination of Co a pressing need for the automotive industry1. Owing to their high energy density and low-cost advantages, high-Ni and low-Co or Co-free (zero-Co) layered cathodes have become the most promising cathodes for next-generation lithium-ion batteries2,3. However, current high-Ni cathode materials, without exception, suffer severely from their intrinsic thermal and chemo-mechanical instabilities and insufficient cycle life. Here, by using a new compositionally complex (high-entropy) doping strategy, we successfully fabricate a high-Ni, zero-Co layered cathode that has extremely high thermal and cycling stability. Combining X-ray diffraction, transmission electron microscopy and nanotomography, we find that the cathode exhibits nearly zero volumetric change over a wide electrochemical window, resulting in greatly reduced lattice defects and local strain-induced cracks. In-situ heating experiments reveal that the thermal stability of the new cathode is significantly improved, reaching the level of the ultra-stable NMC-532. Owing to the considerably increased thermal stability and the zero volumetric change, it exhibits greatly improved capacity retention. This work, by resolving the long-standing safety and stability concerns for high-Ni, zero-Co cathode materials, offers a commercially viable cathode for safe, long-life lithium-ion batteries and a universal strategy for suppressing strain and phase transformation in intercalation electrodes.

Quantifying Reaction and Rate Heterogeneity in Battery Electrodes in 3D through Operando X-ray Diffraction Computed Tomography.

In composite battery electrode architectures, local limitations in ionic and electronic transport can result in nonuniform energy storage reactions. Understanding such reaction heterogeneity is important to optimizing battery performance, including rate capability and mitigating degradation and failure. Here, we use spatially resolved X-ray diffraction computed tomography to map the reaction in a composite electrode based on the LiFePO4 active material as it undergoes charge and discharge. Accelerated reactions at the electrode faces in contact with either the separator or the current collector demonstrate that both ionic and electronic transport limit the reaction progress. The data quantify how nonuniformity of the electrode reaction leads to variability in the charge/discharge rate, both as a function of time and position within the electrode architecture. Importantly, this local variation in the reaction rate means that the maximum rate that individual cathode particles experience can be substantially higher than the average, control charge/discharge rate, by a factor of at least 2-5 times. This rate heterogeneity may accelerate rate-dependent degradation pathways in regions of the composite electrode experiencing faster-than-average reaction and has important implications for understanding and optimizing rate-dependent battery performance. Benchmarking multiscale continuum model parameters against the observed reaction heterogeneity permits extension of these models to other electrode geometries.

Electrolyte Volume Effects on Electrochemical Performance and Solid Electrolyte Interphase in Si-Graphite/NMC Lithium-Ion Pouch Cells.

This study aims to explore the correlations between electrolyte volume, electrochemical performance, and properties of the solid electrolyte interphase in pouch cells with Si-graphite composite anodes. The electrolyte is 1.2 M LiPF6 in ethylene carbonate:ethylmethyl carbonate with 10 wt % fluoroethylene carbonate. Single layer pouch cells (100 mA h) were constructed with 15 wt % Si-graphite/LiNi0.5Mn0.3CO0.2O2 electrodes. It is found that a minimum electrolyte volume factor of 3.1 times to the total pore volume of cell components (cathode, anode, and separator) is needed for better cycling stability. Less electrolyte causes increases in ohmic and charge transfer resistances. Lithium dendrites are observed when the electrolyte volume factor is low. The resistances from the anodes become significant as the cells are discharged. Solid electrolyte interphase thickness grows as the electrolyte volume factor increases and is nonuniform after cycling.

Effects of Propylene Carbonate Content in CsPF6-Containing Electrolytes on the Enhanced Performances of Graphite Electrode for Lithium-Ion Batteries.

The effects of propylene carbonate (PC) content in CsPF6-containing electrolytes on the performances of graphite electrode in lithium half cells and in graphite∥LiNi0.80Co0.15Al0.05O2 (NCA) full cells are investigated. It is found that the performance of graphite electrode is significantly affected by PC content in the CsPF6-containing electrolytes. An optimal PC content of 20% by weight in the solvent mixtures is identified. The enhanced electrochemical performance of graphite electrode can be attributed to the synergistic effects of the PC solvent and the Cs(+) additive. The synergistic effects of Cs(+) additive and appropriate amount of PC enable the formation of a robust, ultrathin, and compact solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) layer on the surface of graphite electrode, which is only permeable for desolvated Li(+) ions and allows fast Li(+) ion transport through it. Therefore, this SEI layer effectively suppresses the PC cointercalation and largely alleviates the Li dendrite formation on graphite electrode during lithiation even at relatively high current densities. The presence of low-melting-point PC solvent improves the sustainable operation of graphite∥NCA full cells under a wide temperature range. The fundamental findings also shed light on the importance of manipulating/maintaining the electrode/electrolyte interphasial stability in various energy-storage devices.

The Role of Cesium Cation in Controlling Interphasial Chemistry on Graphite Anode in Propylene Carbonate-Rich Electrolytes.

Despite the potential advantages it brings, such as wider liquid range and lower cost, propylene carbonate (PC) is seldom used in lithium-ion batteries because of its sustained cointercalation into the graphene structure and the eventual graphite exfoliation. Here, we report that cesium cation (Cs(+)) directs the formation of solid electrolyte interphase on graphite anode in PC-rich electrolytes through its preferential solvation by ethylene carbonate (EC) and the subsequent higher reduction potential of the complex cation. Effective suppression of PC-decomposition and graphite-exfoliation is achieved by adjusting the EC/PC ratio in electrolytes to allow a reductive decomposition of Cs(+)-(EC)m (1 ≤ m ≤ 2) complex preceding that of Li(+)-(PC)n (3 ≤ n ≤ 5). Such Cs(+)-directed interphase is stable, ultrathin, and compact, leading to significant improvement in battery performances. In a broader context, the accurate tailoring of interphasial chemistry by introducing a new solvation center represents a fundamental breakthrough in manipulating interfacial reactions that once were elusive to control.

A XANES study of LiVPO4F: a factor analysis approach.

Evolving factor analysis (EFA) of X-ray absorption near-edge spectroscopy (XANES) data is shown to be a useful tool to understand the phase relationships and compositional ranges of stability in the LiVPO4F-VPO4F system. EFA was used to calculate the concentration of phases versus state-of-charge in a lithium-ion battery and true XANES spectra. The results of EFA showed that, indeed, three phases were present during cycling of a LiVPO4F∥Li cell: LiVPO4F, LixVPO4F, and VPO4F. In contrast to what was reported by others, the second phase was not a fixed composition with x = 0.67, but, instead, existed over a range of lithium stoichiometry, x = 0.25 to 0.80. EFA results also showed that the reactions leading to these phases are reversible.