ABSTRACT
This study aimed to investigate heterogeneous catalytic filaments of calcium oxide (CaO) for fused deposition modeling three-dimensional (3D) printers. The CaO catalysts were blended with acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) plastic to form catalytic filaments. A single-screw filament extruder was used to prepare the filaments, following which their mechanical properties, thermal properties, morphology, catalytic characteristics in biodiesel production, and reusability were evaluated. In accordance with the results, a maximum CaO catalyst content of 15 wt % was recommended to be blended in the ABS pellet. The hardness and compressive strength of these catalytic filaments were shown to be improved. Subsequently, the catalytic filaments with the highest CaO content (15 wt %) were used to produce methyl ester from pretreated sludge palm oil through the transesterification process. To determine the recommended conditions for achieving the highest purity of methyl ester in biodiesel, the process parameters were optimized. A methyl ester purity of 96.58 wt % and a biodiesel yield of 79.7 wt % could be achieved under the recommended conditions of a 9.0:1 methanol to oil molar ratio, 75.0 wt % catalytic filament loading, and 4.0 h reaction time. Furthermore, the reusability of the 15 wt % CaO catalytic filaments was evaluated in a batch process with multiple transesterification cycles. The results indicated that the purity of methyl ester dropped to 95.0 wt % only after the fourth cycle. The method used in this study for preparing and characterizing CaO catalytic filaments can potentially serve as a novel approach for constructing biodiesel reactors using 3D printing technology.
ABSTRACT
This research aimed to evaluate the performance and emissions of direct injection diesel engines using blends of diesel-biodiesel-esterified pyrolysis bio-oil (D-B-EPB). The pyrolysis process was employed to produce pyrolysis bio-oil (PBO) from solid biomass obtained from fresh palm fruits. Furthermore, a simple and effective esterification process was used to upgrade the PBO. The methyl ester (ME) purity of EPB production was studied to optimize three independent variables: methanol (14.8-65.2 wt %), sulfuric acid (1.6-18.4 wt %), and reaction time (16-84 min) using the response surface methodology. The actual experiment yielded a ME purity of 72.73 wt % under the recommended conditions of 40.3 wt % methanol, 13.0 wt % sulfuric acid, 50 min reaction time, 60 °C reaction temperature, and 300 rpm stirrer speed. Additionally, the stability and phase behaviors of D-B-EPB blends were analyzed by using a ternary phase diagram to determine the potential blending proportion. The results revealed that a fuel blend consisting of 30 wt % diesel, 60 wt % biodiesel, and 10 wt % EPB (D30B60EPB10) met the density and viscosity requirements of diesel standards. This D30B60EPB10 blend was subjected to performance and emission tests in diesel engines at various speeds ranging from 1100 to 2300 rpm and different engine loads of 25, 50, and 75%. In terms of performance analysis, the brake thermal efficiencies of biodiesel and D30B60EPB10 were 7.19 and 3.88% higher than that of diesel, respectively. However, the brake-specific fuel consumption of the D30B60EPB10 blend was 6.60% higher than that of diesel due to its higher density and viscosity and lower heating value compared with that of diesel. In the emission analysis, the D30B60EPB10 blend exhibited performance comparable to diesel while being more environmentally friendly, reducing carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxide, and smoke opacity by 8.73, 30.13, 37.55, and 59.75%, respectively. The results of this study suggest that the D-B-EPB blend has the potential to serve as a viable biofuel option, reducing the proportion of diesel in blended fuel and benefiting farmers and rural communities..
ABSTRACT
Sludge palm oil (SPO) with high free fatty acid (FFA) content was processed using a continuous and double-step esterification production process in a rotor-stator-type hydrodynamic cavitation reactor. Three-dimensional printed rotor was made of plastic filament and acted as a major element in minimizing the FFA content in SPO. To evaluate the reduced level of FFAs using both methods, five independent factors were varied: methanol content, sulphuric acid content (H2SO4), hole diameter, hole depth, and rotor speed. The first-step conditions for the esterification process included 60.8 vol% methanol content, 7.2 vol% H2SO4 content, 5.0 mm diameter of the hole, 6.1 mm depth of the hole, and 3000 rpm speed of the rotor. The initial free fatty acid content decreased from 89.16 wt% to 35.00 wt% by the predictive model, while 36.69 wt% FFA level and 94.4 vol% washed first-esterified oil yield were obtained from an actual experiment. In the second-step, 1.0 wt% FFA was achieved under the following conditions: 44.5 vol% methanol content, 3.0 vol% H2SO4 content, 4.6 mm hole diameter, 5.8 mm hole depth, and 3000 rpm rotor speed. The actual experiment produced 0.94 wt% FFA content and 93.9 vol% washed second-esterified oil yield. The entire process required an average electricity of 0.137 kWh/L to reduce the FFA level in the SPO below 1 wt%.
