Biochemical and structural insight into the chemical resistance and cofactor specificity of the formate dehydrogenase from Starkeya novella.

Formate dehydrogenases (Fdhs) mediate the oxidation of formate to carbon dioxide and concomitant reduction of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+ ). The low cost of the substrate formate and importance of the product NADH as a cellular source of reducing power make this reaction attractive for biotechnological applications. However, the majority of Fdhs are sensitive to inactivation by thiol-modifying reagents. In this study, we report a chemically resistant Fdh (FdhSNO ) from the soil bacterium Starkeya novella strictly specific for NAD+ . We present its recombinant overproduction, purification and biochemical characterization. The mechanistic basis of chemical resistance was found to be a valine in position 255 (rather than a cysteine as in other Fdhs) preventing the inactivation by thiol-modifying compounds. To further improve the usefulness of FdhSNO as for generating reducing power, we rationally engineered the protein to reduce the coenzyme nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADP+ ) with better catalytic efficiency than NAD+ . The single mutation D221Q enabled the reduction of NADP+ with a catalytic efficiency kCAT /KM of 0.4 s-1 ·mm-1 at 200 mm formate, while a quadruple mutant (A198G/D221Q/H379K/S380V) resulted in a fivefold increase in catalytic efficiency for NADP+ compared with the single mutant. We determined the cofactor-bound structure of the quadruple mutant to gain mechanistic evidence behind the improved specificity for NADP+ . Our efforts to unravel the key residues for the chemical resistance and cofactor specificity of FdhSNO may lead to wider use of this enzymatic group in a more sustainable (bio)manufacture of value-added chemicals, as for instance the biosynthesis of chiral compounds.

De novo rational design of a freestanding, supercharged polypeptide, proton-conducting membrane.

Proton translocation enables important processes in nature and man-made technologies. However, controlling proton conduction and fabrication of devices exploiting biomaterials remains a challenge. Even more difficult is the design of protein-based bulk materials without any functional starting scaffold for further optimization. Here, we show the rational design of proton-conducting, protein materials exceeding reported proteinaceous systems. The carboxylic acid-rich structures were evolved step by step by exploring various sequences from intrinsically disordered coils over supercharged nanobarrels to hierarchically spider ß sheet containing protein-supercharged polypeptide chimeras. The latter material is characterized by interconnected ß sheet nanodomains decorated on their surface by carboxylic acid groups, forming self-supportive membranes and allowing for proton conduction in the hydrated state. The membranes showed an extraordinary proton conductivity of 18.5 ± 5 mS/cm at RH = 90%, one magnitude higher than other protein devices. This design paradigm offers great potential for bioprotonic device fabrication interfacing artificial and biological systems.

Ru-Based CO releasing molecules with azole ligands: interaction with proteins and the CO release mechanism disclosed by X-ray crystallography.

fac-[RuII(CO)3Cl2(N3-Imidazole)] (RuIIIM), fac-[RuII(CO)3Cl2(N3-methyl-imidazole)] (RuIIMIM) and fac-[RuII(CO)3Cl2(N3-methyl-benzimidazole)] (RuIIMBI) are three ruthenium based CO releasing molecules (Ru-CORMs) that are cytotoxic towards ovarian and colon carcinoma cell lines. Detailed structural information on the adducts formed upon reaction of RuIIIM and RuIIMIM with hen egg white lysozyme and of the three Ru-CORMs with bovine pancreatic ribonuclease is provided here by X-ray crystallography. Comparative analysis of seven crystal structures of these adducts allows one to delineate some general trends in the reactivity of these Ru-CORMs with proteins. Indeed, in all cases Ru-CORMs bind these model systems upon detachment of the azole ligand and concomitant coordination to a protein His or Asp residue. Apparently the three Ru-CORMs progressively dissociate losing azoles, chlorides, and one or two CO molecules. Data were compared with those reported in the literature for adducts of the same proteins with other Ru-CORMs and with in-solution data previously obtained on the same systems. These results are potentially useful for a better understanding of the chemistry, potential toxicity and mechanism of actions of these interesting Ru-CORMs and are helpful in defining the molecular mechanisms of CO release.

X-ray Structure of the Carboplatin-Loaded Apo-Ferritin Nanocage.

The second-generation Pt anticancer agent carboplatin (CBDCA) was encapsulated within the apo horse spleen ferritin (AFt) nanocage, and the X-ray structure of the drug-loaded protein was refined at 1.49 Å resolution. Two Pt binding sites, different from the one observed in the cisplatin-encapsulated AFt, were identified in Ft subunits by inspection of anomalous electron density maps at two wavelengths and difference Fourier electron density maps, which provide the necessary sensitivity to discriminate between Pt from CBDCA and Cd ions that are present in the crystallization conditions. Pt centers coordinate to the NE2 atom of His49 and to the NE2 atom of His132, both on the inner surface of the Ft nanocage.

A driving force for polypeptide and protein collapse.

Experimental measurements and computational results have shown that polypeptide chains, made up of 15-25 glycine residues, collapse to compact structures in water at room temperature. This contrasts with the classic idea that the burial of nonpolar side chains, i.e., the hydrophobic effect, is the driving force of collapse and folding of polypeptides and proteins. It is thus necessary to find a different driving force for polyglycine collapse. The present study aims at showing that the hydrophobic effect has to be re-defined in terms of decrease in solvent-excluded volume associated with chain collapse so that it is characterized by a gain in translational entropy of water molecules. This indicates that the presence of nonpolar side chains is not so important for polypeptide and protein collapse, even though it may be fundamental for the attainment of a unique folded structure.

Gold-based drug encapsulation within a ferritin nanocage: X-ray structure and biological evaluation as a potential anticancer agent of the Auoxo3-loaded protein.

Auoxo3, a cytotoxic gold(iii) compound, was encapsulated within a ferritin nanocage. Inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry, circular dichroism, UV-Vis absorption spectroscopy and X-ray crystallography confirm the potential-drug encapsulation. The structure shows that naked Au(i) ions bind to the side chains of Cys48, His49, His114, His114 and Cys126, Cys126, His132, His147. The gold-encapsulated nanocarrier has a cytotoxic effect on different aggressive human cancer cells, whereas it is significantly less cytotoxic for non-tumorigenic cells.

Cisplatin encapsulation within a ferritin nanocage: a high-resolution crystallographic study.

Cisplatin (CDDP) can be encapsulated within the central cavity of reconstituted (apo)ferritin, (A)Ft, to form a drug-loaded protein of potential great interest for targeted cancer treatments. In this study, the interactions occurring between cisplatin and native horse spleen Ft in CDDP-encapsulated AFt are investigated by high-resolution X-ray crystallography. A protein bound Pt center is unambiguously identified in AFt subunits by comparative analysis of difference Fourier electron density maps and of anomalous dispersion data. Indeed, a [Pt(NH3)2H2O](2+) fragment is found coordinated to the His132 residue located on the inner surface of the large AFt spherical cage. Remarkably, Pt binding does not alter the overall physicochemical features (shape, volume, polarity/hydrophobicity and electrostatic potential) of the outer surface of the AFt nanocage. CDDP-encapsulated AFt appears to be an ideal nanocarrier for CDDP delivery to target sites, as it possesses high biocompatibility and can be internalized by receptor mediated endocytosis, thus carrying the drug to tumor tissue with higher selectivity than free CDDP.