Faster but Not Sweeter: A Model of Escherichia coli Re-level Lipopolysaccharide for Martini 3 and a Martini 2 Version with Accelerated Kinetics.

Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) is a complex glycolipid molecule that is the main lipidic component of the outer leaflet of the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria. It has very limited lateral motion compared to phospholipids, which are more ubiquitous in biological membranes, including in the inner leaflet of the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria. The slow-moving nature of LPS can present a hurdle for molecular dynamics simulations, given that the (pragmatically) accessible timescales to simulations are currently limited to microseconds, during which LPS displays some conformational dynamics but hardly any lateral diffusion. Thus, it is not feasible to observe phenomena such as insertion of molecules, including antibiotics/antimicrobials, directly into the outer membrane from the extracellular side nor to observe LPS dissociating from proteins via molecular dynamics using currently available models at the atomistic and more coarse-grained levels of granularity. Here, we present a model of deep rough LPS compatible with the Martini 2 coarse-grained force field with scaled down nonbonded interactions to enable faster diffusion. We show that the faster-diffusing LPS model is able to reproduce the salient biophysical properties of the standard models, but due to its faster lateral motion, molecules are able to penetrate deeper into membranes containing the faster model. We show that the fast ReLPS model is able to reproduce experimentally determined patterns of interaction with outer membrane proteins while also allowing for LPS to associate and dissociate with proteins within microsecond timescales. We also complete the Martini 3 LPS toolkit for Escherichia coli by presenting a (standard) model of deep rough LPS for this force field.

Computational microbiology of bacteria: Advancements in molecular dynamics simulations.

Microbiology is traditionally considered within the context of wet laboratory methodologies. Computational techniques have a great potential to contribute to microbiology. Here, we describe our loose definition of "computational microbiology" and provide a short survey focused on molecular dynamics simulations of bacterial systems that fall within this definition. It is our contention that increased compositional complexity and realistic levels of molecular crowding within simulated systems are key for bridging the divide between experimental and computational microbiology.

The solute carrier SPNS2 recruits PI(4,5)P2 to synergistically regulate transport of sphingosine-1-phosphate.

Solute carrier spinster homolog 2 (SPNS2), one of only four known major facilitator superfamily (MFS) lysolipid transporters in humans, exports sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P) across cell membranes. Here, we explore the synergistic effects of lipid binding and conformational dynamics on SPNS2's transport mechanism. Using mass spectrometry, we discovered that SPNS2 interacts preferentially with PI(4,5)P2. Together with functional studies and molecular dynamics (MD) simulations, we identified potential PI(4,5)P2 binding sites. Mutagenesis of proposed lipid binding sites and inhibition of PI(4,5)P2 synthesis reduce S1P transport, whereas the absence of the N terminus renders the transporter essentially inactive. Probing the conformational dynamics of SPNS2, we show how synergistic binding of PI(4,5)P2 and S1P facilitates transport, increases dynamics of the extracellular gate, and stabilizes the intracellular gate. Given that SPNS2 transports a key signaling lipid, our results have implications for therapeutic targeting and also illustrate a regulatory mechanism for MFS transporters.

Molecular dynamics simulations reveal membrane lipid interactions of the full-length lymphocyte specific kinase (Lck).

The membrane-bound lymphocyte-specific protein-tyrosine kinase (Lck) triggers T cell antigen receptor signalling to initiate adaptive immune responses. Despite many structure-function studies, the mode of action of Lck and the potential role of plasma membrane lipids in regulating Lck's activity remains elusive. Advances in molecular dynamics simulations of membrane proteins in complex lipid bilayers have opened a new perspective in gathering such information. Here, we have modelled the full-length Lck open and closed conformations  using data available from different crystalographic studies and simulated its interaction with the inner leaflet of the T cell plasma membrane. In both conformations, we found that the unstructured unique domain and the structured domains including the kinase interacted with the membrane with a preference for PIP lipids. Interestingly, our simulations suggest that the Lck-SH2 domain interacts with lipids differently in the open and closed Lck conformations, demonstrating that lipid interaction can potentially regulate Lck's conformation and in turn modulate T cell signalling. Additionally, the Lck-SH2 and kinase domain residues that significantly contacted PIP lipids are found to be conserved among the Src family of kinases, thereby potentially representing similar PIP interactions within the family.

Lipids mediate supramolecular outer membrane protein assembly in bacteria.

ß Barrel outer membrane proteins (OMPs) cluster into supramolecular assemblies that give function to the outer membrane (OM) of Gram-negative bacteria. How such assemblies form is unknown. Here, through photoactivatable cross-linking into the Escherichia coli OM, coupled with simulations, and biochemical and biophysical analysis, we uncover the basis for OMP clustering in vivo. OMPs are typically surrounded by an annular shell of asymmetric lipids that mediate higher-order complexes with neighboring OMPs. OMP assemblies center on the abundant porins OmpF and OmpC, against which low-abundance monomeric ß barrels, such as TonB-dependent transporters, are packed. Our study reveals OMP-lipid-OMP complexes to be the basic unit of supramolecular OMP assembly that, by extending across the entire cell surface, couples the requisite multifunctionality of the OM to its stability and impermeability.

Allosteric activation of T cell antigen receptor signaling by quaternary structure relaxation.

The mechanism of T cell antigen receptor (TCR-CD3) signaling remains elusive. Here, we identify mutations in the transmembrane region of TCRß or CD3ζ that augment peptide T cell antigen receptor (pMHC)-induced signaling not explicable by enhanced ligand binding, lateral diffusion, clustering, or co-receptor function. Using a biochemical assay and molecular dynamics simulation, we demonstrate that the gain-of-function mutations loosen the interaction between TCRαß and CD3ζ. Similar to the activating mutations, pMHC binding reduces TCRαß cohesion with CD3ζ. This event occurs prior to CD3ζ phosphorylation and at 0°C. Moreover, we demonstrate that soluble monovalent pMHC alone induces signaling and reduces TCRαß cohesion with CD3ζ in membrane-bound or solubilised TCR-CD3. Our data provide compelling evidence that pMHC binding suffices to activate allosteric changes propagating from TCRαß to the CD3 subunits, reconfiguring interchain transmembrane region interactions. These dynamic modifications could change the arrangement of TCR-CD3 boundary lipids to license CD3ζ phosphorylation and initiate signal propagation.

Multi-scale simulations of the T cell receptor reveal its lipid interactions, dynamics and the arrangement of its cytoplasmic region.

The T cell receptor (TCR-CD3) initiates T cell activation by binding to peptides of Major Histocompatibility Complexes (pMHC). The TCR-CD3 topology is well understood but the arrangement and dynamics of its cytoplasmic tails remains unknown, limiting our grasp of the signalling mechanism. Here, we use molecular dynamics simulations and modelling to investigate the entire TCR-CD3 embedded in a model membrane. Our study demonstrates conformational changes in the extracellular and transmembrane domains, and the arrangement of the TCR-CD3 cytoplasmic tails. The cytoplasmic tails formed highly interlaced structures while some tyrosines within the immunoreceptor tyrosine-based activation motifs (ITAMs) penetrated the hydrophobic core of the membrane. Interactions between the cytoplasmic tails and phosphatidylinositol phosphate lipids in the inner membrane leaflet led to the formation of a distinct anionic lipid fingerprint around the TCR-CD3. These results increase our understanding of the TCR-CD3 dynamics and the importance of membrane lipids in regulating T cell activation.