Health response of two communities to military antennae in Cyprus.

OBJECTIVES: This study investigated concerns that have been raised about past and future health effects caused by high power transmissions of high frequency (7-30 MHz) radio waves from military antenna systems at Akrotiri, Cyprus. METHODS: A cross-sectional study of three villages (two exposed, one unexposed) collected longitudinal and short-term radiofrequency measurements. Health data were collected using questionnaires containing information on demographic factors, specific illnesses, general health (SF-36 well-being questionnaire), reproductive history, childhood illnesses, risk perception and mortality. Analysis was with SPSS v11.5 using cross tabulations of non-parametric data and tests for significance. Key health outcomes were subjected to logistic regression analysis. RESULTS: Field strengths within the two "exposed" villages were a maximum of 0.30 (Volts/Vm(-1) metre) from the 17.6 MHz military transmissions and up to 1.4 Vm(-1) from unspecified sources, mainly cell phone frequencies. The corresponding readings in the control village were <0.01 Vm(-1). Compared with the control village there were highly significant differences in the reporting of migraine (OR 2.7, p<0.001), headache (OR 3.7, p<0.001), and dizziness (OR 2.7, p<0.001). Residents of the exposed villages showed greater negative views of their health in all eight domains of the SF-36. There were also higher levels of perceived risk, particularly to noise and electromagnetic "pollution". All three villages reported higher values of risk perception than a UK population. There was no evidence of birth abnormalities or differences in gynaecological or obstetric history. Numbers of cancers were too small to show differences. CONCLUSION: It was clear that even this close (1-3 km) to powerful transmissions, the dominant sources of radiofrequency fields were cell phone and national broadcast systems. There was no excess of cancer, birth defects or obstetric problems. There was heightened risk perception and a considerable excess of migraine, headache and dizziness, which appears to share a gradient with radiofrequency exposure. The authors report this association but suggest this is unlikely to be an effect of radiofrequency and more likely to be antenna visibility or aircraft noise.

Effect of 902 MHz mobile phone transmission on cognitive function in children.

We examine whether a standard mobile exposure at 902 MHz has a significant effect on cognitive function in 18 children 10-12 years of age. These were in a single group in which each child was given a single training session and then three test sessions in a randomized, three-way crossover design, using the cognitive drug research (CDR) cognitive assessment system. Exposures were 0, 0.025, or 0.25 W from a standard Nokia 3110 mobile phone handset mounted on a plastic headset in normal use position. The results of testing showed that the baseline (0 W) performance for the reaction time measurements was considerably slower than for the comparable measures in adult. There was a tendency for reaction time to be shorter during exposure to radiation than in the sham (baseline) condition, an effect that was most marked for simple reaction time. However, no effects reached statistical significance after Bonferroni correction. Therefore, we conclude that this study on 18 children did not replicate our earlier finding in adults that exposure to microwave radiation was associated with a reduction in reaction time. It should be noted that the present study investigated the effects of radiation from a GSM handset, whereas in our previous study the effect on reaction time was observed only with a more powerful analogue handset.

Doses to fetal and maternal organs from intravenous 59FeCl3 or 57CoCl2.

Doses from intravenous intakes of 59Fe or 57Co chloride during pregnancy were estimated. Near term fetal organ doses were derived via the MIRDOSE3 newborn phantom, with mean dose/cumulated activity (S) values rescaled for compatibility with near term fetus whole body S. A detailed in vivo biodistribution database provided indications of residence times in important maternal and fetal organs. 59Fe doses to the fetus whole body from early to late pregnancy were 7-11 mGy MBq(-1) (8.5-14.3 mSv MBq(-1)), similar to that to the mother. Doses to near term fetal spleen (59 mGy MBq(-1)), liver (36), and red marrow (9) were similar or higher than to the mother. 57Co doses to fetus whole body from early to late pregnancy were 0.7-3.3 mGy MBq(-1) (2.5-8.2 mSv MBq(-1)), similar or higher than to the mother. Doses to near term fetal small intestine (34 mGy MBq(-1)). liver (4.7) and red marrow (2.7) were similar or higher than to the mother.

Quantitative surface EMG in the diagnosis of neuromuscular disorders.

This paper describes a non-invasive quantitative method for the diagnosis of neuromuscular disorders using surface EMG (sEMG). We found sEMG to be a reliable method that can be used to differentiate neuropathic and myopathic patients from the normal subjects. The multivariate discriminant analysis of sEMG data assisted in separating myopathic from neuropathic disorders. Nevertheless sEMG is not robust enough to replace needle EMG as a stand-alone diagnostic tool. However quantitative sEMG that is described in this paper could be adopted as a simple, rapid and non-invasive technique to be used in the out patients clinic by EMG-naive clinicians as a screening method for neuromuscular disorders, before referring the patients for detailed clinical neurophysiological examinations.

Approximate distribution of dose among foetal organs for radioiodine uptake via placenta transfer.

Absorbed radiation doses to internal foetal organs were calculated according to the medical internal radiation dose (MIRD) technique in this study. Anthropomorphic phantoms of the pregnant female as in MIRDOSE3 enabled estimation of absorbed dose to the whole foetus at two stages of gestation. Some foetal organ self-doses could have been estimated by invoking simple spherical models for thyroid, liver, etc, but we investigated the use of the MIRDOSE3 new-born phantom as a surrogate for the stage 3 foetus, scaled to be compatible with total foetal body mean absorbed dose/cumulated activity. We illustrate the method for obtaining approximate dose distribution in the foetus near term following intake of 1 MBq of 123I, 124I, 125I or 131I as sodium iodide by the mother using in vivo biodistribution data examples from a good model of placenta transfer. Doses to the foetal thyroid of up to 1.85 Gy MBq(-1) were predicted from the 131I uptake data. Activity in the foetal thyroid was the largest contributor to absorbed dose in the foetal body, brain, heart and thymus. Average total doses to the whole foetus ranged from 0.16 to 1.2 mGy MBq(-1) for stages 1 and 3 of pregnancy using the MIRDOSE3 program, and were considerably higher than those predicted from the maternal contributions alone. Doses to the foetal thymus and stomach were similar, around 2-3 mGy MBq(-1). Some foetal organ doses from the radioiodides were ten times higher than to the corresponding organs of the mother, and up to 100 times higher to the thyroid. The fraction of activity uptakes in foetal organs were distributed similarly to the maternal ones.

Power frequency electromagnetic fields and health. Where's the evidence?

Twenty years ago concerns were raised that exposure to power frequency (or extremely low frequency (ELF)) electromagnetic fields (EMFs) may be associated with an increased risk of cancer or other health hazards. Subsequently no associations have been shown between laboratory magnetic field exposures and carcinogenesis in either animal or cellular models. Indeed, studies have demonstrated that magnetic fields are not associated with cancer. However, the puzzle remains that the results of some epidemiological studies may be interpreted as suggesting that living close to high-voltage transmission (HVT) lines appears to increase slightly the risk of childhood leukaemia. Alternatively, these results could result from small biases and errors in individual studies, which might not necessarily be the same in each study. The nature of the epidemiological studies (power-line, wire code, magnetic field or appliance based) appears to determine whether and how the EMFs associated with HVT lines might be a risk factor. It is possible that a simple association with either magnetic or electric field exposure may not be the whole answer, and an alternative mechanism is always a possibility. Although the interpretation of the available evidence by most expert bodies has led them to conclude that exposure to power frequency electric and magnetic fields is not a human health hazard, a working group under the auspices of the US National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS) concluded that there was a possible low risk associated with certain exposures to ELF magnetic fields. NIEHS itself interpreted the finding as insufficient to warrant aggressive regulatory concern but stated that, because virtually everyone is routinely exposed to ELF EMFs, passive regulatory action is warranted, such as a continued emphasis on educating both the public and the regulated community on means aimed at reducing exposures. These analyses, conclusions and advice are not contradicted by subsequent studies, and therefore the conclusion of the World Health Organisation that further research is needed seems valid.

Home radon levels and seasonal correction factors for the Isle of Man.

Ionizing radiation dose levels due to home radon can rise to levels that would be illegal for workers in the nuclear industry. It is well known that radon levels within homes and from home to home, and also from month to month, vary considerably. To define an Isle of Man radon seasonal correction factor, readings were taken in eight homes over a 12 month period. An average island indoor exposure of 48 Bq m(-3) (range 4-518 Bq m(-3)) was determined from 285 homes selected from a cohort of 1300 families participating in the European Longitudinal Study of Pregnancy and Childhood (ELSPAC) in the Isle of Man. This compares with a UK home average of 20 Bq m(-3) and a European Union average (excluding UK) of 68 Bq m(-3). Ten homes of those measured were found to have radon levels above the National Radiological Protection Board 200 Bq m(-3) action level. There are 29,377 homes on the Isle of Man, suggesting that there could be some 900 or more homes above the action level. No statistical difference was found between the NRPB and Isle of Man seasonal correction factors.

The contribution of local distribution substations and associated area distribution system to personal exposure to power frequency magnetic fields.

A number of epidemiological studies has shown a significant correlation between wire coding, magnetic fields and childhood cancer, although a more recent study has not [McBride et al. (1999) Am. J. Epidemiol. 149 (9), 831-842]. In the UK there is currently no equivalent to wire-codes and there is some uncertainty about the extent to which the UK medium-voltage electricity distribution systems contribute to personal exposure and how this compares with US overhead supply systems. Studies on four different area types were carried out to measure magnetic field intensities from typical electricity supply utility substations and cabling in the vicinity of domestic housing. Typically at distances of two metres from the substations mean magnetic field intensities were 20 nano teslas (nT) or less, increasing to 0.98 microT or less at the closest public access point. The mean magnetic field exposure level sampled around the four main test areas varied between 0.012 and 0.27 microT increasing to 0.30-0.80 microT at road junctions.

Bootstrap resampling: a powerful method of assessing confidence intervals for doses from experimental data.

Bootstrap resampling provides a versatile and reliable statistical method for estimating the accuracy of quantities which are calculated from experimental data. It is an empirically based method, in which large numbers of simulated datasets are generated by computer from existing measurements, so that approximate confidence intervals of the derived quantities may be obtained by direct numerical evaluation. A simple introduction to the method is given via a detailed example of estimating 95% confidence intervals for cumulated activity in the thyroid following injection of 99mTc-sodium pertechnetate using activity-time data from 23 subjects. The application of the approach to estimating confidence limits for the self-dose to the kidney following injection of 99mTc-DTPA organ imaging agent based on uptake data from 19 subjects is also illustrated. Results are then given for estimates of doses to the foetus following administration of 99mTc-sodium pertechnetate for clinical reasons during pregnancy, averaged over 25 subjects. The bootstrap method is well suited for applications in radiation dosimetry including uncertainty, reliability and sensitivity analysis of dose coefficients in biokinetic models, but it can also be applied in a wide range of other biomedical situations.

Effect of a 915-MHz simulated mobile phone signal on cognitive function in man.

PURPOSE: To examine whether a simulated mobile telephone transmission at 915 MHz has an effect on cognitive function in man. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Thirty-six subjects in two groups were each given two training sessions and then three test sessions in a randomized three-way cross-over design. About 1 W mean power at 915 MHz from a quarter-wave antenna mounted on a physical copy of an analogue phone, as a sine wave, or modulated at 217 Hz with 12.5% duty cycle, or no power, was applied to the left squamous temple region of the subjects while they undertook a series of cognitive function tests lasting approximately 25-30 min. The second group was investigated for sleep, consumption of alcohol and beverages, and any other substances that might affect performance. RESULTS: In both groups, the only test affected was the choice reaction time and this showed as an increase in speed (a decrease in reaction time). There were no changes in word, number or picture recall, or in spatial memory. While an effect of visit-order was evident suggesting a learning effect of repeat tests, the design of the study allowed for this. Additionally, there was no systematic error introduced as a result of consumption of substances or sleep time. CONCLUSIONS: There was evidence of an increase in responsiveness, strongly in the analogue and less in the digital simulation, in choice reaction time. This could be associated with an effect on the angular gyrus that acts as an interface between the visual and speech centres and which lies directly under and on the same side as the antenna. Such an effect could be consistent with mild localized heating, or possibly a non-thermal response, which is nevertheless power-dependent.

The effect of a 50 Hz magnetic field on cognitive function in humans.

OBJECTIVES: To examine whether the power frequency magnetic field of 0.6mT applied to humans has an effect on cognitive function as has been suggested by animal studies. These fields are less than the suggested intervention level in the UK of 1.6mT and are similar to those found close to some domestic appliances. METHOD AND MATERIALS: A randomized three-way cross-over design using a battery of computerized cognitive function tests were used in the presence or absence of a 50Hz or static magnetic field. Sixteen healthy volunteers undertook two training and three test sessions with a 50Hz or static 0.6 mT magnetic field from a set of coils centred on the head. RESULTS: In response to the 50 Hz field, disruptions of accuracy were seen from an attentional task (the ability to correctly recognize words shown 20min previously and the ability to maintain a string of digits in working memory). There was no similar response to comparable levels of static magnetic field. CONCLUSIONS: These tests indicated at least temporary deterioration in attention, and working and secondary memory performance while a 50 Hz field is applied. There were no adverse effects on speed from any of the tasks. It was not possible in this study to be sure if these effects were persistent.

Magnetic fields from domestic appliances in the UK.

In a survey of 50 UK homes the 50 Hz fundamental and harmonic magnetic fields generated by 806 domestic appliances found in the homes, and used regularly by mothers, were measured. Measurements were made in the direction of most likely access, and from the surface of the appliances. Mothers completed a questionnaire on the use of appliances and were monitored for 24 h so that acquired exposure could be compared with the measured ambient fields in the home. Appliances were measured at standard distances and an algorithm was used to calculate fields at 100 and 50 cm to remove room background contributions. A few appliances generated fields in excess of 0.2 microT at 1 m: microwave cookers 0.37 +/- 0.14 microT; washing machines 0.27 +/- 0.14 microT; dishwashers 0.23 +/- 0.13 microT; some electric showers 0.11 +/- 0.25 microT and can openers 0.20 +/- 0.21 microT. Of continuously operating devices, only central heating pumps (0.51 +/- 0.47 microT), central heating boilers (0.27 +/- 0.26 microT) and fish-tank air pumps (0.32 +/- 0.09 microT) produced significant fields at 0.5 m. There were no obvious ways to group different types of appliances as high- or low-strength sources. Mothers spent on average about 4.5 h per day in the kitchen, where the strongest sources of magnetic field were located.

Domestic magnetic field exposures in Avon.

To define a protocol for surrogate measurement of magnetic field exposure by questionnaire, a series of spot and 24-hour measurements was made at 50 houses in Avon, UK. Measurements were made with Emdex II equipment in the centres of rooms with the house power encountered at the start of the visit, and then with all power to the house isolated at the main switch. The mean spot magnetic field averaged over the 50 homes for each room varied between 0.011 and 0.023 microT with an overall mean (0.017 +/- 0.003) microT with the power 'on', and between 0.008 and 0.015 microT, giving an overall mean (0.012 +/- 0.002) microT with power 'off'. Measurements over 24 h in the three main occupancy rooms showed a distinct diurnal variation in the overall mean magnetic field of the 50 homes by a factor of three, giving a 24-hour mean of (0.044 +/- 0.06) microT; at the same time mean recorded personal exposure for the occupants monitored was (0.067 +/- 0.08) microT. These values appear low compared with, for example, USA domestic levels of magnetic field exposure demonstrated in several studies, but also show a wide variation in individual values, which could not be predicted from spot measurements.

Enhanced deposition of radon daughter nuclei in the vicinity of power frequency electromagnetic fields.

We report the attraction of radon daughter nuclei in normal domestic room air to everyday sources of power frequency electromagnetic fields. TASTRAK plastic track detectors were used to measure alpha-emission from the radon (222Rn) daughters 218Po and 214Po close to 50-Hz mains frequency power cables and domestic appliance leads. We observed that wires carrying mains frequency potential attract radon daughter nuclei in a manner visually similar to the attraction of iron filings to a magnet. Increased deposition of up to a factor of 18 was observed. Further experiments designed to simulate the effect of overhead power lines at ground level showed large scale variations in local plateout and airborne concentration of radon daughters. The effects appear to be due to interactions of the electric component of the EM-field with both the ultrafine and attached fraction of radon daughter aerosols. Three mechanisms have been examined. First, aerosols instantaneously polarize in sympathy with the electric component of an applied mains frequency EM-field and as a result may migrate up strong E-field gradients. This effect is however quite weak and may only affect larger aerosols in strong field gradients. Second, charged aerosols oscillate in a 50-Hz field and in the case of the ultrafine fraction this may lead to significantly increased plateout. Third, there is the possibility that oscillation of charged aerosols induces fluctuations in the magnitude of the instantaneous charges carried and this results in a diffusive-like motion along the field lines. The effect on dose to body organs is considered. Enhanced plateout on the skin is likely, increasing the dose to the basal layer. The dose to internal organs is governed initially by inhalation and lung deposition of radon daughters. Therefore increased local concentration in room air could lead to increased dose by inhalation. E-fields are heavily attenuated by the human body and body values in tissue of no more than 10(-4) of the external field strength have been suggested. Nevertheless calculations suggest that under exposure to strong external fields this may still be sufficient to alter the deposition pattern of the charged component of the ultrafine fraction in the bronchial region. In contrast it is unlikely that internal electric fields could significantly affect the attached radon daughters. In this context the lack of measurements of residual E-fields in the cavities of the mouth, pharyngeal and bronchial regions is of considerable importance and should be addressed. We believe that the observations may have implications for the apparent enigma that there is no persuasive biological evidence to show that power frequency electromagnetic fields can influence any of the accepted stages in carcinogenesis. On the contrary, the observations show that EM-fields can concentrate in their vicinity a cocktail of radon daughter nuclei, a known carcinogen, and presumably other potentially harmful agents.

In vitro demonstration of a fundamental difference in the proliferation of murine and human bone marrow and lymphocytes following ultraviolet irradiation: relevance to bone marrow transplantation.

Exposure of rodent allogeneic donor marrow and splenocyte grafts to ultraviolet radiation (UVR) has been shown to permit durable engraftment at doses that abolish graft-versus-host disease (GVHD) and graft rejection. We have compared both murine and human alloreactive and mitogen-induced lymphoid responses and bone marrow proliferation in mixed lymphocyte culture (MLC), phytohemagglutinin (PHA)-induced proliferation and colony-forming unit-granulocyte/macrophage (CFU-GM) assays using germicidal UVC (200-290 nm), broadband and narrowband UVB (290-320 nm) and UVA (320-400 nm) sources. Our data show a wavelength and dose-dependent reduction in lymphoid proliferation in the mouse with CFU-GM survival of 50-75% of control at doses required to abolish allogeneic lymphocyte responses for all lamps. In contrast, human lymphocyte responses are more resistant to UVC with CFU-GM proliferation reduced to zero when allostimulation is abolished. Mitogen-induced lymphoid responses show a similar wavelength-dependent sensitivity. Abolition of response in MLC using UV-irradiated stimulator cells was less sensitive than proliferation with UV-irradiated responder cells at all wavelengths in both species. With all sources, murine CFU-GM proliferation is less susceptible to UVR than human marrow at doses required to abolish lymphoid responses.

A comparison of four ultraviolet sources to alter graft-versus-host responses.

Graft-versus-host disease (GVHD) is a major contributor to the morbidity and mortality associated with allogeneic bone marrow transplantation. Direct ultraviolet B (UVB) irradiation of bone marrow and spleen cell allografts in mice using broadband lamps is known to abolish alloreactive responses which would normally cause GVHD. Using a histoincompatible murine model, we have extended these observations by comparing the physical spectrum of four UV sources (the Philips TUV8W, TL12 and TL01, and the Spectronics XX15B) with in vitro assessment of bone marrow progenitor cell damage and suppression of lymphocyte proliferation and in vivo comparison of the effect on GVHD of the TL12 and XX15B and on the rate of engraftment with the TL12. At doses of uv found to abolish lymphocyte proliferation (2.5, 7, 12 and 1000 J m(-2) with the TUV8W, XX15B, TL12 and TL01 lamps) colony-forming unit granulocyte-macrophage (CFU-GM) proliferation was reduced to 81%, 71%, 79% and 62%, respectively. At an optimal dose found to suppress GVHD (100 J m(-2) integrated radiant energy from 200-320 nm for the TL12 and XX15B) CFU-GM proliferation showed a reduction of 98% with the XX15B and 86% with the TL12. At this radiant energy with the TL12, the rate of bone marrow engraftment was impaired with 72% marrow cellularity at 2 weeks, decreasing to 48% after 200 J m(-2). Our results with this model demonstrate that broadband UVB irradiation of bone marrow permits transplantation across a major histocompatibility barrier. Furthermore we have provided in vitro evidence that narrowband UVB or UVC might potentially be applied to this model.

Non-invasive quantitative EMG.

The EMG information obtained by surface recording is compared to needle derived data processed in an identical manner. Such quantitative analysis of EMG activity has been undertaken using needle electrodes and is a well recognised technique for clinical purposes (16). Results of a study comparing data collected simultaneously by surface and needle electrodes from normal healthy volunteers are presented as a preliminary to a similar study of neuropathic and myopathic patients. The EMG interference pattern during maximum voluntary contraction was analysed for turns and zero crossings as well as from frequency spectral data, and the results displayed on-line using an inexpensive novel transputer aided PC. It was found that quantitative studies of surface and needle data were directly comparable in one muscle such as tibialis anterior but very different in another, such as rectus femoris, where there were changes in signal characteristic at different depths. The variability between individuals appeared to be less marked when surface electrodes were used. Data from surface recordings also show a high degree of repeatability when collected over a period of time.

Effect of frequency and conductivity on field penetration of electromagnetic hyperthermia applicators.

The field penetration of electromagnetic hyperthermia applicators in 2.5-29 g l-1 saline (NaCl) solutions over a range of frequencies is investigated. Calculated field penetration based on the current-element method agrees well with measurement at frequencies above about 100 MHz, but at lower frequencies measured field penetration becomes progressively less than calculated as conductivity is reduced. Experimental results and finite-difference time-domain (FDTD) method modelling show that the electromagnetic field produces circulating currents. The effect of these circulating currents on the heating pattern of the applicators should be considered when planning hyperthermia treatment.

New materials for dielectric simulation of tissues.

Two novel materials have been developed to simulate the dielectric properties of human muscle and fat at 1000 MHz. These materials, which are based on ethanediol set with gelatine, are easily made and have good mechanical properties. The complex permittivity, epsilon *, of each material was measured with an open-ended coaxial sensor in conjunction with an automatic network analyser. Values of epsilon * at 1000 MHz and room temperature (49.4-24.4j for the muscle-equivalent material, 8.2-3.6j for the fat-equivalent) compared well with literature values for tissue at body temperature. Thermal properties were also considered. Specific heat capacities of the materials at room temperature were measured by differential scanning calorimetry and found to be very close to values predicted by theory. Densities were also measured and the thermal conductivities estimated. For comparison, new measurements were made of the specific heat and density of human muscle and fat at body temperature.