Suspected autoimmune encephalitis: A retrospective study of patients referred for therapeutic plasma exchange.

INTRODUCTION: Autoimmune encephalitis (AE) comprises a heterogeneous group of autoantibody-mediated disorders targeting the brain parenchyma. Therapeutic plasma exchange (TPE), one of several first-line therapies for AE, is often initiated when AE is suspected, albeit prior to an established diagnosis. We sought to characterize the role of TPE in the treatment of suspected AE. METHODS: A single-center, retrospective analysis was performed of adults (≥18 years) who underwent at least one TPE procedure for "suspected AE." The following parameters were extracted and evaluated descriptively: clinicopathologic characteristics, treatment course, TPE-related adverse events, outcomes (e.g., modified Rankin scale [mRS]), and diagnosis once investigation was complete. RESULTS: A total of 37 patients (median age 56 years, range 28-77 years, 62.2% male) were evaluated. Autoimmune antibody testing was positive in serum for 43.2% (n = 16) and cerebrospinal fluid for 29.7% (n = 11). Patients underwent a median of five TPE procedures (range 3-16), with 97.3% (n = 36) via a central line and 21.6% (n = 8) requiring at least one unit of plasma as replacement fluid. Fifteen patients (40.5%) experienced at least one TPE-related adverse event. Compared with mRS at admission, the mRS at discharge was improved in 21.6% (n = 8), unchanged in 59.5% (n = 22), or worse in 18.9% (n = 7). Final diagnosis of AE was determined to be definite in 48.6% (n = 18), probable in 8.1% (n = 3) and possible in 27.0% (n = 10). Six (16.2%) patients were ultimately determined to have an alternate etiology. CONCLUSION: Empiric TPE for suspected AE is generally well-tolerated. However, its efficacy remains uncertain in the absence of controlled trials, particularly in the setting of seronegative disease.

Quantitative brain 18F-FDG PET/CT analysis in seronegative autoimmune encephalitis.

OBJECTIVE: Brain 18F-FDG PET/CT is a useful diagnostic in evaluating patients with suspected autoimmune encephalitis (AE). Specific patterns of brain dysmetabolism have been reported in anti-NMDAR and anti-LGI1 AE, and the degree of dysmetabolism may correlate with clinical functional status.18FDG-PET/CT abnormalities have not yet been described in seronegative AE. METHODS: We conducted a cross-sectional analysis of brain18FDG-PET/CT data in people with seronegative AE treated at the Johns Hopkins Hospital. Utilizing NeuroQ™ software, the Z-scores of 47 brain regions were calculated relative to healthy controls, then visually and statistically compared for probable and possible AE per clinical consensus diagnostic criteria to previous data from anti-NMDAR and anti-LGI1 cohorts. RESULTS: Eight probable seronegative AE and nine possible seronegative AE were identified. The group only differed in frequency of abnormal brain MRI, which was seen in all of the probable seronegative AE patients. Both seronegative groups had similar overall patterns of brain dysmetabolism. A common pattern of frontal lobe hypometabolism and medial temporal lobe hypermetabolism was observed in patients with probable and possible seronegative AE, as well as anti-NMDAR and anti-LGI1 AE as part of their respective characteristic patterns of dysmetabolism. Four patients had multiple brain18FDG-PET/CT scans, with changes in number and severity of abnormal brain regions mirroring clinical status. CONCLUSIONS: A18FDG-PET/CT pattern of frontal lobe hypometabolism and medial temporal lobe hypermetabolism could represent a common potential biomarker of AE, which along with additional clinical data may facilitate earlier diagnosis and treatment.

Change in Epidemiology of Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease in the US, 2007-2020.

This cross-sectional study uses Centers for Disease Control and Prevention multiple cause of death data to examine recent US trends in Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease.

Comparison of quantitative FDG-PET and MRI in anti-LGI1 autoimmune encephalitis.

OBJECTIVES: Anti-leucine glioma-inactivated protein 1 (anti-LGI1) autoimmune encephalitis (AE) presents as subacute memory loss, behavioral changes, and seizures. Diagnosis and treatment delays can result in long term sequelae, including cognitive impairment. 18F-FDG PET/CT may be more sensitive than MRI in patients with AE. Our objective was to determine if anti-LGI1 is associated with a distinct pattern of FDG uptake and whether this pattern persists following treatment. METHODS: Nineteen18F-FDG PET/CT brain scans (13 pre-treatment, 6 convalescent phase) for 13 patients with anti-LGI1 were studied using NeuroQ™ and CortexID™. The sensitivity of the PET images was compared to MRI. The Z scores of 47 brain regions between the pre-treatment and next available follow-up images during convalescence were compared. RESULTS: All 18F-FDG PET/CT scans demonstrated abnormal FDG uptake, while only 6 (42.9%) pre-treatment brain MRIs were abnormal. The pre-treatment scans demonstrated hypermetabolism in the bilateral medial temporal cortices, basal ganglia, brain stem, and cerebellum and hypometabolism in bilateral medial and mid frontal, cingulate, and parietotemporal cortices. Overall, the brain uptake during convalescence showed improvement of the Z scores towards 0 or normalization of previous hypometabolic activity in medial frontal cortex, inferior frontal cortex, Broca's region, parietotemporal cortex, and posterior cingulate cortex and previous hypermetabolic activity in medial temporal cortices, caudate, midbrain, pons and cerebellum. CONCLUSIONS: Brain FDG uptake was more commonly abnormal than MRI in the pre-treatment phase of anti-LGI1, and patterns of dysmetabolism differed in the pre-treatment and convalescent phases. These findings may expedite the diagnosis, treatment, and monitoring of anti-LGI1 patients.

Visual Pathway Involvement in NMDA Receptor Encephalitis: A Clinical, Optical Coherence Tomography, and 18-Fluorodeoxyglucose PET/CT Approach.

BACKGROUND: Anti-NMDA receptor (NMDAR) encephalitis patients have been reported to exhibit visual dysfunction without retinal thinning. The objective of our study was to examine the involvement of the visual pathway structure and function in anti-NMDAR encephalitis by assessing postrecovery visual function and retinal structure, and acute-phase occipital cortex function. METHODS: In this cross-sectional study, patients diagnosed with anti-NMDAR encephalitis per consensus criteria underwent postrecovery visual acuity (VA) testing and optical coherence tomography (OCT) with automated retinal layer segmentation. Clinical data and acute-phase brain 18F-fluorodeoxyglucose (FDG) PET/CT (performed within 90 days of symptom onset, assessed qualitatively and semi-quantitatively) were retrospectively analyzed. VA and OCT measures were compared between anti-NMDAR and age, sex, and race-matched healthy controls (HC). When available, FDG-PET/CT metabolism patterns were analyzed for correlations with VA, and OCT measures. RESULTS: A total of 16 anti-NMDAR (32 eyes) and 32 HC (64 eyes) were included in the study. Anti-NMDAR exhibited lower low-contrast VA (2.5% contrast: -4.4 letters [95% CI; -8.5 to -0.3]; P = 0.04, 1.25% contrast: -6.8 letters [95%CI; -12 to -1.7]; P = 0.01) compared with HC, but no differences were found on OCT-derived retinal layer thicknesses. Acute-phase FDG-PET/CT medial occipital cortex metabolism did not correlate with follow-up low-contrast VA or ganglion cell/inner plexiform layer thickness (GCIPL) (n = 7, 2.5% contrast: r = -0.31; P = 0.50, 1.25% contrast: r = -0.34; P = 0.45, GCIPL: r = -0.04; P = 0.94). CONCLUSIONS: Although the visual system seems to be involved in anti-NMDAR encephalitis, no retinal structural or occipital cortex functional abnormalities seem to be responsible for the visual dysfunction. When detected acutely, occipital lobe hypometabolism in anti-NMDAR encephalitis does not seem to associate with subsequent retrograde trans-synaptic degenerative phenomena, potentially reflecting reversible neuronal/synaptic dysfunction in the acute phase of the illness rather than neuronal degeneration.

Neurohospitalist Practice and Well-Being During the COVID-19 Pandemic.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Neurohospitalists play an important role in, and have been variably affected by, the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic. In this study, we survey neurohospitalists to characterize practice changes and the impact of the pandemic on their well-being. METHODS: A 22-item survey was distributed to neurohospitalists through the Neurohospitalist Society and the American Academy of Neurology Neurohospitalist, Stroke & Vascular Neurology, and Critical Care & Emergency Neurology Sections. RESULTS: After 2 weeks of collection, 123 responses were received, with 57% of respondents practicing in academic settings, 23% in private practice, and 7% in community hospitals. A minority of neurohospitalists (8%) were redeployed to care for COVID-19 or non-COVID-19 medicine patients. The most common neurologic diagnoses they reported in COVID-19 patients were delirium (85%), cerebrovascular events (75%), and seizure (35%); however, most neurohospitalists (59%) had evaluated fewer than 10 patients with COVID-19. Respondents observed that fewer patients with unrelated neurological diseases were admitted to the hospital compared to before the pandemic. Neurohospitalists experienced changes in administrative (27%), educational (15%), and research duties (11%), and had overall worse well-being and work-life balance (77%). CONCLUSIONS: The most common neurologic diagnoses seen in COVID-19 patients by neurohospitalists in this sample are delirium, cerebrovascular disease, and seizure. Though the majority of survey respondents reported not being primary frontline providers, they report key clinical and operational roles during the pandemic, and report worse well-being as compared to before the pandemic. Our data suggests that there are opportunities to improve neurohospitalists' experience through flexible work practices and providing family care support.

Fatigue in Survivors of Autoimmune Encephalitis.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: To evaluate the impact of fatigue after autoimmune encephalitis, determine associations with patients' characteristics, and identify factors that contribute to its development. METHODS: In a first cohort recruited via several encephalitis support organizations, self-reported questionnaires were used to evaluate fatigue, depression, and sleep quality in adults after autoimmune encephalitis. In a second cohort where more in-depth clinical characterization could be performed, adults with encephalitis from 2 tertiary hospitals were evaluated using the same questionnaires. Patients' characteristics were retrospectively captured. RESULTS: In the first cohort (mean [SD] age; 43 [16] years, 220 [65%] female), 220 of 338 participants (65%) reported fatigue, 175 of 307 (57%) depression, and 211 of 285 (74%) poor sleep quality. In the second cohort (48 [19] years; 43 [50%] women), 42 of 69 participants (61%) reported fatigue, whereas 23 of 68 (34%) reported depression and 44 of 66 (67%) poor sleep quality, despite more than 80% having "good" modified Rankin scale (mRS) scores (0-2). Individuals with anti-NMDA receptor encephalitis reported lower fatigue scores than those with other autoimmune encephalitis types. In a multivariate analysis examining factors at discharge that might predict fatigue scores, only anti-NMDA receptor encephalitis was a (negative) predictor of fatigue and remained so when potential confounders were included. DISCUSSION: The impact of fatigue after autoimmune encephalitis is prominent and not fully accounted for by depression or sleep quality, nor adequately captured by mRS scores for disability. Fatigue is pervasive across autoimmune encephalitis, although lower scores are reported in anti-NMDA receptor encephalitis. Fatigue should be screened routinely, considered as an outcome measure in clinical trials, and further studied from a mechanistic standpoint.

Autoimmune encephalitis: proposed best practice recommendations for diagnosis and acute management.

The objective of this paper is to evaluate available evidence for each step in autoimmune encephalitis management and provide expert opinion when evidence is lacking. The paper approaches autoimmune encephalitis as a broad category rather than focusing on individual antibody syndromes. Core authors from the Autoimmune Encephalitis Alliance Clinicians Network reviewed literature and developed the first draft. Where evidence was lacking or controversial, an electronic survey was distributed to all members to solicit individual responses. Sixty-eight members from 17 countries answered the survey. Corticosteroids alone or combined with other agents (intravenous IG or plasmapheresis) were selected as a first-line therapy by 84% of responders for patients with a general presentation, 74% for patients presenting with faciobrachial dystonic seizures, 63% for NMDAR-IgG encephalitis and 48.5% for classical paraneoplastic encephalitis. Half the responders indicated they would add a second-line agent only if there was no response to more than one first-line agent, 32% indicated adding a second-line agent if there was no response to one first-line agent, while only 15% indicated using a second-line agent in all patients. As for the preferred second-line agent, 80% of responders chose rituximab while only 10% chose cyclophosphamide in a clinical scenario with unknown antibodies. Detailed survey results are presented in the manuscript and a summary of the diagnostic and therapeutic recommendations is presented at the conclusion.

MOG-IgG1 and co-existence of neuronal autoantibodies.

BACKGROUND: The presence of co-existent neuronal antibodies (neuronal-IgG) in patients with myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein immunoglobulin G (MOG-IgG1) is not yet well understood. OBJECTIVES: The aim of this study was to investigate the co-existence of a broad range of neuronal-IgG in MOG-IgG1+ patients. METHODS: MOG-IgG1+ patients were tested for 17 neuronal-IgGs in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and serum including NMDA-R-IgG, AMPA-R-IgG, GABAB-R-IgG, LGI1-IgG, CASPR2-IgG, GABAA-R-IgG, GAD65-IgG, mGLUR1-IgG, DPPX-IgG, CRMP5-IgG, amphiphysin-IgG, PCA1,2,Tr, and ANNA1,2,3. Clinical and radiological features of MOG-IgG1+ with NMDA-R-IgG in CSF were compared to a control cohort of MOG-IgG1+ patients without NMDA-R-IgG. RESULTS: A total of 376 MOG-IgG1+ patients underwent testing for neuronal-IgGs. Serum testing for neuronal-IgGs (113 adults, 142 children) identified one child with NMDA-R-IgG (0.7%), one child with CASPR2-IgG (0.7%), one adult with LGI1-IgG (0.9%) and one adult with GABAA-R-IgG (0.9%). CSF testing for neuronal-IgGs (97 adults, 169 children) identified seven children (4%) and seven adults (7%) with NMDA-R-IgG, and one adult with GABAA-R-IgG (1%). The MOG-IgG1+/NMDA-R-IgG+ patients had a median age of 17 (range: 2-39) years. Features associated with MOG-IgG1+/NMDA-R-IgG+ included encephalopathy (p = 0.001), seizures (p = 0.045), and leptomeningeal enhancement (p = 0.045). CONCLUSION: NMDA-R-IgG was the most frequently detected neuronal-IgG to co-exist with MOG-IgG1. MOG-IgG1+/NMDA-R-IgG+ patients most often presented with encephalopathy and seizures. Testing for MOG-IgG1 and NMDA-R-IgG may be warranted in patients with encephalopathy and inflammatory demyelinating syndromes.

Neurologic complications of immune checkpoint inhibitors.

Introduction: Immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICI) are associated with a wide spectrum of neurologic immune-related adverse events (irAEs) including meningo-encephalitis, myasthenia gravis and various neuropathies. Although relatively rare, they often present significant diagnostic complexity and may be under-recognized. Permanent neurologic deficits and/or fatality have been described but improvement is noted in most cases with ICI discontinuation and immunosuppressive therapy.Areas covered: This review highlights the most frequently reported ICI-associated neurologic toxicities with a particular focus on those that may be more severe and/or fatal. Data from case series and pharmacovigilance studies is leveraged to provide an overview of associated clinical features, expected outcomes and appropriate management. Various immunobiologic triggers have been proposed to explain why certain patients might develop neurologic irAEs and are also briefly discussed.Expert opinion: All providers who care for patients with cancer should be made aware of common neurologic irAEs and able to recognize when prompt evaluation and consultation with appropriate specialists are indicated. Symptoms suggestive of encephalitis, myasthenia-gravis or an acute polyradiculopathy such as Guillain-Barre Syndrome (GBS) in patients exposed to these agents warrant immediate attention with a low threshold for hospitalization to expedite work-up and monitor for severe and/or life-threatening manifestations.

Prevalence and Improvement of Caine-Positive Wernicke-Korsakoff Syndrome in Psychiatric Inpatient Admissions.

BACKGROUND: Wernicke-Korsakoff Syndrome (WKS) resulting from thiamine deficiency is classically defined as including encephalopathy, ataxia, and ophthalmoplegia. Only 16% of autopsy-confirmed patients with WKS exhibit all three signs. Caine-positive WKS criteria include two or more of the following: nutritional deficiency, delirium or mild memory impairment, cerebellar dysfunction/ataxia, and oculomotor abnormalities. OBJECTIVE: We describe Caine-positive WKS prevalence among psychiatric inpatients and compare pretreatment-versus-posttreatment neurocognitive improvement to an unaffected group. METHODS: This 6-month quality-improvement evaluation included two-stage screening for Caine-positive WKS, administering high-dose intravenous thiamine (day 1: 1200 mg; days 2-4: 200 mg) with reexamination on day 5. We used descriptive statistics and fitted random effects models to examine rate-of-change differences in pre-/posttreatment Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA), delayed 5-item recall, and gait/coordination scores between treated Caine-positive patients with WKS and untreated Caine-negative patients. RESULTS: Of 262 patients, 32 (12%) had Caine-positive WKS; 17 (53%) used alcohol currently. Treated Caine-positive WKS (n = 26) versus Caine-negative comparison (n = 34) before and after treatment observed a mean change (standard deviation) in the MoCA score of 3.6 (2.5) versus 1.8 (2.5) (P < 0.01); 5-item recall: 1.8 (1.4) versus 0.5 (1.4) (P < 0.001); gait/coordination scores: -0.6 (1.2) versus -0.1 (0.6) (P < 0.001). Oculomotor abnormalities were infrequent (n = 4 in Caine-positive WKS, n = 2 in Caine-negative comparison groups). CONCLUSIONS: Caine-positive WKS prevalence among psychiatric inpatients was 12%; only half used alcohol. Patients treated with high-dose thiamine demonstrated clinically significant neurocognitive improvement.

New-onset refractory status epilepticus: A retrospective cohort study.

PURPOSE: To describe the clinical, laboratory, neuroimaging, electroencephalographic features, etiology, treatment, as well as short-term and long-term outcomes of adults with new-onset refractory status epilepticus (NORSE). METHOD: A retrospective, single institution cohort study (2010-2018) of consecutive adult patients with NORSE. RESULTS: Among 20 patients with NORSE, nine (45 %) had prodromal febrile illness, 12 (60 %) had evidence of inflammation on CSF profile. Six patients (30 %) met criteria for definite autoimmune encephalitis (AE) while 8 patients (40 %) had probable AE. Eleven out of 13 (85 %) patients had an abnormal FDG-PET scan with the most common finding being regional hypermetabolism. Fourteen patients (70 %) received immunotherapy and ten (50 %) received the ketogenic diet (KD). Fifteen patients (75 %) progressed to super-refractory status epilepticus (SRSE) and seven patients (35 %) died in the hospital or within six months of discharge. Among the surviving patients, eight (40 %) had a good outcome (i.e., modified Rankin Scale score 0-2); 12 (80 %) received a diagnosis of epilepsy of which nine (75 %) developed drug-resistant epilepsy. CONCLUSIONS: New-onset refractory status epilepticus is a syndrome associated with multiple complications, high mortality, and subsequent intractable epilepsy. There are multiple causes, some of which are autoimmune encephalitides; however, in this series the majority of patients had no clear etiology identified after extensive evaluation. Prospective studies are needed to determine optimal evaluation and treatment.

The prevalence and utility of screening for urinary tract infection at the time of presumed multiple sclerosis relapse.

BACKGROUND: Methods of screening for infections at the time of suspected relapse in people with multiple sclerosis (MS) vary across physicians. People with multiple sclerosis (MS) are at an increased risk of urinary tract infection (UTI). Data evaluating the utility of screening for potential UTI at the time of suspected relapse and whether there are key subgroups of patients in which screening would be most effective are sparse. OBJECTIVES: To evaluate demographic and clinical predictors of UTI in the context of a suspected acute relapse in (1) a retrospective hospital admission cohort and (2) a prospectively-enrolled, ambulatory care-based cohort, and to determine an approximate number needed to screen to detect one UTI in both healthcare settings. METHODS: For the hospital admissions cohort, we included individuals with a known or new diagnosis of MS or clinically isolated syndrome who were admitted at least once to the Johns Hopkins Neurology Inpatient Service (March 2012 to December 2014). We considered those screened via urinalysis. Possible UTI was defined as leukocyte esterase OR nitrite positive. For the ambulatory population, we enrolled a cohort of RRMS patients aged 18-65 who were suspected of suffering from an acute MS relapse who either called or came into clinic. Participants were screened via urinalysis; possible UTI was similarly defined. Participants also completed questionnaires (disability, history of Uhthoff's-type phenomenon, recent sexual intercourse, and new urologic symptoms). For both cohorts, we calculated an approximate number needed to screen, and tested if demographic and patient characteristics were associated with possible UTI using logistic regression models. RESULTS: For the hospital admissions cohort, we included 158 individuals; 48 (30.4%) were identified as possibly having a UTI. For possible UTI, the approximate number needed to screen in order to detect 1 possible UTI is 3 (95% CI: 2, 6). Female sex was the only factor associated with increased odds of UTI (odds ratio [OR]: 3.90; 95% CI: 1.59-9.61; p = 0.003). For the ambulatory cohort, we included 50 participants; 10 (20.0%) with possible UTI. The approximate number needed to screen in order to detect 1 possible UTI was 5 (95% CI: 3, 11) in this cohort. Foul-smelling urine was positively associated with UTI (OR: 5.36; 95% CI: 1.10, 26.17; p = 0.04); no men had a possible UTI in this cohort, so we could not estimate odds ratios associated with sex. CONCLUSION: UTIs at the time of a suspected MS relapse are relatively uncommon. Female sex is a strong risk factor for UTI in people with MS; foul-smelling urine is a potential predictor of UTI in people with MS. Larger studies are needed to comprehensively evaluate the utility of screening and risk factors for UTI at the time of suspected MS relapse.

A Multidisciplinary Toxicity Team for Cancer Immunotherapy-Related Adverse Events.

BACKGROUND: Immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) may cause immune-related adverse events (irAEs). Methods to obtain real-time multidisciplinary input for irAEs that require subspecialist care are unknown. This study aimed to determine whether a virtual multidisciplinary immune-related toxicity (IR-tox) team of oncology and medicine subspecialists would be feasible to implement, be used by oncology providers, and identify patients for whom multidisciplinary input is sought. PATIENTS AND METHODS: Patients treated with ICIs and referred to the IR-tox team in August 2017 through March 2018 were identified. Feasibility was defined as receipt of electronic referrals and provision of recommendations within 24 hours of referral. Use was defined as the proportion of referring providers who used the team's recommendations, which was determined through a postpilot survey. Demographics and tumor, treatment, and referral data were collected. Patient features and irAE associations were analyzed. RESULTS: The IR-tox team was found to be feasible and used: 117 referrals from 102 patients were received in 8 months, all providers received recommendations within 24 hours, 100% of surveyed providers used the recommendations, and 74% changed patient management based on IR-tox team recommendations. Referrals were for suspected irAEs (n=106; 91%) and suitability to treat with ICIs (n=11; 10%). In referred patients, median age was 64 years, 54% were men, 13% had prior autoimmunity, and 46% received ICI combinations versus monotherapy (54%). The most commonly referred toxicities were pneumonitis (23%), arthritis (16%), and dermatitis (15%); 15% of patients had multisystem toxicities. Multiple referrals were more common in those treated with combination ICIs (odds ratio [OR], 6.0; P=.035) or with multisystem toxicities (OR, 8.1; P=.005). The IR-tox team provided a new multidisciplinary forum to assist providers in diagnosing and managing complex irAEs. This model identifies educational and service needs, and patients with irAEs for whom multidisciplinary care is most sought. CONCLUSIONS: A virtual multidisciplinary toxicity team for irAEs was a feasible and used service, and facilitated toxicity identification and management.

Neurohospitalist Practice, Perspectives, and Burnout.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Neurohospitalist neurology is a fast-growing subspecialty with a variety of practice settings featuring neurohospitalist models of care. Since inception, the subspecialty has responded to new challenges in resident training, hospital reimbursement, practice, and burnout. METHODS: To characterize neurohospitalists' current practice and perspectives, we surveyed the neurohospitalists and trainees affiliated with the Neurohospitalist Society using an electronic survey distributed through the society listserv. RESULTS: Of 501 individuals surveyed by e-mail, 119 began the survey (23.8% response rate), with 88.2% self-identifying as neurohospitalists. Most neurohospitalists (63%) are 10 years or less out of training, devoting 70% of their professional time to inpatient clinical activities while also performing administrative or teaching activities. Only 38% are employed by an academic department. Call schedules are common, with 75% of neurohospitalists participating in a hospital or emergency call schedule, while 55% provide telemedicine services. The majority (97%) of neurohospitalists primarily care for adults, most commonly treating patients with cerebrovascular disease, seizures, and delirium/encephalopathy. The majority (87%) are overall pleased with their work, but 36% report having experienced burnout. CONCLUSIONS: Neurohospitalists are a diverse group of neurologists primarily practicing in the inpatient setting while performing a variety of additional activities. They provide a wide array of clinical expertise for acute neurological diseases and neurological emergencies that require hospitalization, including stroke, seizure, and encephalopathy. Neurohospitalists in general are very pleased with their work, while burnout, as in neurology and other areas of medicine, remains a concern.