Incidence and prevalence of copper deficiency following roux-en-y gastric bypass surgery.

INTRODUCTION AND OBJECTIVES: The frequency of copper deficiency and clinical manifestations following roux-en-y gastric bypass (RYGB) surgery is not yet clear. Objectives were to determine the prevalence and incidence of copper deficiency in patients who have undergone RYGB. DESIGN AND METHODS: We sought to determine the number of RYGB patients undergoing medical and nutritional follow-up visits at the Emory Bariatric Center who experienced copper deficiency and associated hematological and neurological complaints (n=136). Separately, in patients followed longitudinally before and during 6 and 24 months following RYGB surgery, we obtained measures of copper status (n=16). Systemic blood cell counts and measures of copper, zinc and ceruloplasmin were determined using standardized assays in reference laboratories including atomic absorption spectrometry and immunoassays. RESULTS: Thirteen patients were identified to have copper deficiency suggesting a prevalence of copper deficiency of 9.6%, and the majority of these had concomitant complications including anemia, leukopenia and various neuro-muscular abnormalities. In the longitudinal study, plasma copper concentrations and ceruloplasmin activity decreased over 6 and 24 months following surgery, respectively (P<0.05), but plasma zinc concentrations did not change. A simultaneous decrease in white blood cells was observed (P<0.05). The incidence of copper deficiency in these subjects was determined to be 18.8%. CONCLUSIONS: The prevalence and incidence of copper deficiency following RYGB surgery was determined to be 9.6% and 18.8%, respectively, with many patients experiencing mild-to-moderate symptoms. Given that copper deficiency can lead to serious and irreversible complications if untreated, frequent monitoring of the copper status of RYGB patients is warranted.

Lower copper, zinc-superoxide dismutase protein but not mRNA in organs of copper-deficient rats.

Copper deficiency was induced in Sprague Dawley rats by dietary restriction to confirm and extend studies on copper, zinc-superoxide dismutase (Cu,Zn-SOD). Male rats restricted from copper in two models, a traditional postweanling model examining 50-day-old rats fed a low copper diet for 32 days (postnatal) and a gestational-lactational model examining 23-day-old male offspring of dams started on copper deficiency at day 7 of gestation (perinatal), showed signs of severe copper deficiency including anemia, and cardiac hypertrophy. Compared to control rats, copper-deficient rats exhibited lower copper concentrations in the liver, heart, brain, and kidney and lower Cu,Zn-SOD activity in the same organs with the exception of the brain in the postnatal model. In addition, there was a significant reduction in Cu,Zn-SOD protein detected by Western immunoblot proportional (r = 0.96) to the reduction in Cu,Zn-SOD activity. In the liver the reduction in Cu,Zn-SOD protein was approximately 50%. The reduction in Cu,Zn-SOD protein is likely due to a post-transcriptional mechanism as steady-state Cu,Zn-SOD mRNA levels measured by Northern hybridization were not altered by copper deficiency in any organ studied (liver, heart, and brain). Perhaps apo-Cu,Zn-SOD is degraded faster than fully metal-loaded enzyme. The loss of Cu,Zn-SOD activity and protein reduces the antioxidant defense capacity of copper-deficient organs.

Copper transport and metabolism are normal in aceruloplasminemic mice.

Ceruloplasmin is an abundant serum glycoprotein containing greater than 95% of the copper found in the plasma of vertebrate species. Although this protein is known to function as an essential ferroxidase, the role of ceruloplasmin in copper transport and metabolism remains unclear. To elucidate the role of ceruloplasmin in copper metabolism, the kinetics of copper absorption, transport, distribution, and excretion were examined utilizing (64)Cu in wild-type and aceruloplasminemic mice. No differences in gastrointestinal absorption, hepatic uptake, or biliary excretion were observed in these animals. Furthermore, steady state measurements of tissue copper content utilizing (64)Cu and atomic absorption spectroscopy revealed no differences in the copper content of the brain, heart, spleen, and kidney. Consistent with these findings, the activity of copper-zinc superoxide dismutase in these tissues was equivalent in wild-type and ceruloplasmin-deficient mice. Hepatic iron was elevated 3.5-fold in aceruloplasminemic mice because of the loss of ferroxidase function. Hepatic copper content was markedly increased in aceruloplasminemic mice. As no differences were observed in copper absorption or biliary copper excretion, these data suggest that in these animals, hepatocyte copper intended for ceruloplasmin incorporation is trafficked into a compartment that is less available for biliary copper excretion. Taken together, these data reveal no essential role for ceruloplasmin in copper metabolism and suggest a previously unappreciated complexity to the subcellular distribution of this metal within the hepatocyte secretory pathway.

Essential role for mammalian copper transporter Ctr1 in copper homeostasis and embryonic development.

The trace metal copper (Cu) plays an essential role in biology as a cofactor for many enzymes that include Cu, Zn superoxide dismutase, cytochrome oxidase, ceruloplasmin, lysyl oxidase, and dopamine beta-hydroxylase. Consequently, Cu transport at the cell surface and the delivery of Cu to intracellular compartments are critical events for a wide variety of biological processes. The components that orchestrate intracellular Cu trafficking and their roles in Cu homeostasis have been elucidated by the studies of model microorganisms and by the characterizations of molecular basis of Cu-related genetic diseases, including Menkes disease and Wilson disease. However, little is known about the mechanisms for Cu uptake at the plasma membrane and the consequences of defects in this process in mammals. Here, we show that the mouse Ctr1 gene encodes a component of the Cu transport machinery and that mice heterozygous for Ctr1 exhibit tissue-specific defects in copper accumulation and in the activities of copper-dependent enzymes. Mice completely deficient for Ctr1 exhibit profound growth and developmental defects and die in utero in mid-gestation. These results demonstrate a crucial role for Cu acquisition through the Ctr1 transporter for mammalian Cu homeostasis and embryonic development.

Dietary copper deficiency alters protein levels of rat dopamine beta-monooxygenase and tyrosine monooxygenase.

Perinatal copper (Cu) deficiency was studied by offering pregnant Sprague Dawley rats a basal diet low in copper, 0.44 mg/kg, and drinking water containing 0 (-Cu) or 20 (+Cu) mg Cu/L as CuSO4 starting at day 7 of gestation and continuing throughout lactation. To investigate dopamine-beta-monooxygenase (DBM) and tyrosine monooxygenase (TM) in adrenal gland and brain, offspring were weaned at Day 21 to treatments of their respective dams for 9 days. Offspring, 30 days old, of Cu-deficient (-Cu) dams were smaller, anemic, and had biochemical features characteristic of severe Cu deficiency. Adrenal DBM enzyme activity of 30-day-old -Cu rats was 40% higher than Cu-adequate (+Cu) rats and DBM protein levels, estimated by Western immunoblot, were 45% higher. Adrenal DBM mRNA levels of -Cu rats were 108% higher than +Cu rats. Adrenal TM protein levels of -Cu rats were 39% higher than +Cu rats. Hypothalamus DBM activity was significantly higher in -Cu than +Cu rats but no reproducible changes in DBM or TM protein levels could be detected by Western immunoblots. Diet history did not impact adrenal gland or hypothalamus levels of actin as detected on reblotted membranes. However, activity of the cuproenzyme Cu,Zn-superoxide dismutase was 50% lower and 30% lower, respectively, in extracts from rat adrenal gland and hypothalamus of -Cu than +Cu rats, indicating altered Cu status in the tissues studied. These data suggest that Cu deficiency is associated with increased formation of DBM and TM protein levels in adrenal gland. Further research will be required to determine the chemical signal responsible for this induction and if DBM or TM protein levels change in other tissues.

Isolation of a murine copper transporter gene, tissue specific expression and functional complementation of a yeast copper transport mutant.

A polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-based strategy was used to isolate a mouse cDNA (mCtr1) encoding a Cu transport protein. The deduced mCtr1 protein sequence exhibits 92% identity to human Ctr1, and has structural features in common with known high affinity Cu transporters from yeast. The expression of mouse Ctr1 functionally complements baker's yeast cells defective in high affinity Cu transport. Characterization of the mCtr1 genomic clone showed that the mCtr1 coding sequence is encompassed within four exons and that the mCtr1 locus maps to chromosome band 4C1-2. RNA blotting analysis demonstrated that mCtr1 is ubiquitously expressed, with high levels in liver and kidney, and early in embryonic development. Steady state mammalian Ctr1 mRNA levels were not changed in response to cellular Cu availability, which is distinct from the highly Cu-regulated transcription of genes encoding yeast high affinity Cu transporters. These studies provide fundamental information for further investigations on the function and regulation of Ctr1 in Cu acquisition in mammals.

Decreased passive stiffness of cardiac myocytes and cardiac tissue from copper-deficient rat hearts.

Passive stiffness characteristics of isolated cardiac myocytes, papillary muscles, and aortic strips from male Holtzman rats fed a copper-deficient diet for approximately 5 wk were compared with those of rats fed a copper-adequate diet to determine whether alterations in these characteristics might accompany the well-documented cardiac hypertrophy and high incidence of ventricular rupture characteristic of copper deficiency. Stiffness of isolated cardiac myocytes was assessed from measurements of cellular dimensional changes to varied osmotic conditions. Stiffness of papillary muscles and aortic strips was determined from resting length-tension analyses and included steady-state characteristics, dynamic viscoelastic stiffness properties, and maximum tensile strength. The primary findings were that copper deficiency resulted in cardiac hypertrophy with increased cardiac myocyte size and fragility, decreased cardiac myocyte stiffness, and decreased papillary muscle passive stiffness, dynamic stiffness, and tensile strength and no alteration in aortic connective tissue passive stiffness or tensile strength. These findings suggest that a reduction of cardiac myocyte stiffness and increased cellular fragility could contribute to the reduced overall cardiac tissue stiffness and the high incidence of ventricular aneurysm observed in copper-deficient rats.

Gender influences the effect of perinatal copper deficiency on cerebellar PKC gamma content.

Change in cerebellar protein kinase C gamma (PKCgamma) content caused by perinatal copper (Cu) deficiency was determined in 22-day old rats. The offspring of dams with low Cu intake during gestation and lactation exhibited signs characteristic of Cu deficiency including anemia, greater than 90% reduction in liver Cu concentration, and undetectable serum ceruloplasmin. In addition, brain Cu concentrations were reduced 80%. No differences in the signs of Cu deficiency were observed between female and male offspring. However, cerebellar PKCgamma content was reduced 54% (P < 0.05, Tukey's test) in female offspring but only 18% (P > 0.05) in male offspring. Following 6 weeks of Cu supplementation, brain Cu concentrations remained depressed in female and male rats that experienced perinatal Cu deficiency, but cerebellar PKCgamma content was completely restored to control levels. Postnatal expression of PKCgamma in the cerebellum coincides with and regulates cerebellar maturation. The results of the present study indicate perinatal Cu deficiency may impair cerebellar maturation to a greater extent in females than in males. However, it is not clear whether suppression of PKCgamma by perinatal Cu deficiency produces permanent neuropathology in the cerebellum because the effects were reversed by Cu supplementation.

Brain copper content and cuproenzyme activity do not vary with prion protein expression level.

Prion diseases are neurodegenerative disorders that result from conformational transformation of a normal cell surface glycoprotein, PrP(C), into a pathogenic isoform, PrP(Sc). Although the normal physiological function of PrP(C) has remained enigmatic, the recent observation that the protein binds copper ions with micromolar affinity suggests a possible role in brain copper metabolism. In this study, we have used mice that express 0, 1, and 10 times the normal level of PrP to assess the effect of PrP expression level on the amount of brain copper and on the properties of two brain cuproenzymes. Using mass spectrometry, we find that the amount of ionic copper in subcellular fractions from brain is similar in all three lines of mice. In addition, the enzymatic activities of Cu-Zn superoxide dismutase and cytochrome c oxidase in brain extracts are similar in these groups of animals, as is the incorporation of (64)Cu into Cu-Zn superoxide dismutase both in cultured cerebellar neurons and in vivo. Our results differ from those of another set of published studies, and they require a re-evaluation of the role of PrP(C) in copper metabolism.

Copper deficiency alters rat dopamine beta-monooxygenase mRNA and activity.

Dopamine beta-monooxygenase (DBM), a cuproenzyme, converts dopamine to norepinephrine in selected cells. Studies were conducted in albino rats to resolve the known paradox of DBM after copper deficiency in which metabolite analyses of tissues suggest lower activity, whereas direct assay of homogenates suggests enhanced activity. After 4 wk of postweanling copper deficiency, male Holtzman rats exhibited 1.4-fold higher adrenal DBM activity and 1. 8-fold higher adrenal DBM mRNA levels than copper-adequate rats. Mixing experiments did not support the existence of endogenous activators or inhibitors. Adrenal catecholamine content indicated lower norepinephrine, higher dopamine and unaffected epinephrine content in copper-deficient compared with copper-adequate rats. Studies in 22-d-old male Sprague-Dawley offspring of dams started on copper deficiency at d 7 of gestation indicated similar results for adrenal DBM mRNA, a 1.75-fold increase compared with copper-adequate pups. Adrenal dopamine content was higher in female copper-deficient offspring compared with controls, but norepinephrine was not lower. Medulla oblongata/pons DBM mRNA concentration was higher in 22-d-old copper-deficient female but not male rats compared with controls. Six weeks of copper repletion to the 22-d-old rats restored adrenal DBM mRNA levels to control values. Enzyme assay and RNA results are consistent with enhanced formation of DBM in adrenal gland and noradrenergic cell bodies of copper-deficient rats. The molecular signal may not be solely lower norepinephrine content because adrenal DBM mRNA changes were evident in both nutritional models, whereas the norepinephrine content was altered only in the postnatal model.

Calcium reintroduction decreases viability of cardiac myocytes from copper-deficient rats.

Copper deficiency leads to profound cardiac hypertrophy and failure. Myocytes were isolated from hearts of copper-deficient and copper-adequate male Holtzman rats to characterize size and function of the cells. Weanling rats were offered a semipurified diet low in copper in two separate experiments (Experiment 1, 0.45 mg Cu/kg and Experiment 2, 0.30 mg Cu/kg). Control (copper-adequate) rats drank water supplemented with cupric sulfate (20 mg Cu/L). Compared with copper-adequate rats, copper-deficient rats had lower hematocrits, liver copper concentrations and plasma ceruloplasmin activities, and higher heart weights and liver iron concentrations. When myocytes were isolated in low calcium media (1 micromol/L), cell viability was not affected by diet history. However, upon restoration to more physiologic levels of calcium (1 mmol/L), cells from copper-deficient rats were less viable, exhibiting an average loss of 34 and 40% in Experiments 1 and 2, respectively, compared with a 9.5 and 13% loss of cells, respectively, from the copper-adequate rats. Addition of the calcium channel blocker, verapamil, did not block this calcium-dependent loss of viability nor did the mitochondrial calcium channel blockers, ruthenium red and cyclosporin A. For comparison with another model of cardiac hypertrophy, the calcium sensitivity of myocytes from hypertrophic hearts of Sprague-Dawley rats with aortic constrictions was found not to differ from that of sham-operated rats. Thus, cardiac hypertrophy associated with postnatal copper deficiency results in a unique increased calcium intolerance of isolated myocytes.

Copper-deficient Rats have Altered Plasma Dihydroxyphenylacetic acid and Spleen Catecholamine Levels.

Perinatal copper (Cu) deficiency was produced in month old female and male Sprague Dawley rats by beginning low Cu treatment at day 7 of gestation and continuing throughout lactation. Offspring were maintained on the treatment of their dams from postnatal day 21-30. Compared to Cu-adequate rats Cu-deficient rats of both genders were smaller, had increased heart/body weight and lower liver copper levels. Plasma and spleen catecholamine levels were measured by HPLC. Plasma dihydroxyphenylacetic acid (DOPAC) levels, a dopamine (DA) metabolite, were higher in Cu-deficient females and males. Spleen norepinephrine (NE) was lower in Cu-deficient males and spleen DA was higher in both females and males compared to controls. Postnatal Cu deficiency was also studied in 54-day old male Holtzman rats after 5 weeks of dietary treatment. Cu-deficient males had higher plasma DOPAC, lower spleen NE, higher spleen DA, and higher spleen dihydroxyphenylglycol (DHPG) content, an NE metabolite. Plasma DOPAC data are consistent with higher tissue levels of DA and limiting dopamine-ß-monooxygenase activity (DBM) in Cu-deficient rats. Lower tissue NE might also be due to lower DBM activity. Plasma DHPG, which was not altered, and spleen DHPG, which was elevated by Cu deficiency, do not support lower NE synthesis in Cu deficiency. Plasma DOPAC might be useful to assess nutritional Cu status.

In vitro copper stimulation of plasma peptidylglycine alpha-amidating monooxygenase in Menkes disease variant with occipital horns.

We determined the concentrations of copper, the activities of ceruloplasmin and peptidylglycine alpha-amidating monooxygenase (PAM), and the stimulation index of PAM by the in vitro addition of copper in plasma samples obtained from three male patients with occipital horns and a milder Menkes disease phenotype, having severe copper deficiency due to the defect in copper transport. We found a decreased plasma ceruloplasmin activity and an increased copper stimulation index of plasma PAM in these patients compared with healthy control subjects. The combination of these two determinations may provide a means for the assessment of copper nutriture in humans using blood samples obtained in a single microhematocrit tube. Further investigation is warranted to evaluate whether these noninvasive measurements can be used for the diagnosis of mild copper deficiency in humans with sufficient specificity and sensitivity.

Atria and ventricles of copper-deficient rats exhibit similar hypertrophy and similar altered biochemical characteristics.

Male Holtzman rats were offered a semipurified low-copper (Cu) diet (0.36 mg Cu/kg) for 5-6 weeks to further characterize cardiac hypertrophy, which accompanies Cu deficiency. Cu-adequate (controls) were given supplemental Cu (20 micrograms/ml) in their drinking water, and Cu-deficient rats were given deionized water. Cu-deficient rats had lower plasma ceruloplasmin activity, lower hemoglobin levels, higher heart weights, and similar body weights compared with Cu-adequate rats. The relative degree of hypertrophy in the right ventricle of Cu-deficient rats was significantly higher (2.3-fold) than that in the left ventricle and atria (both were 1.9-fold higher than the values in Cu-adequate rats). Edema was not detected. Ventricles and atria of Cu-deficient rats had markedly lower Cu and no significant differences in iron concentrations compared with Cu-adequate rats. Heart protein concentrations were not altered consistently by Cu deficiency. Enzyme activities of the cuproenzymes cytochrome-c oxidase (CCO), copper, zinc-superoxide dismutase (SOD), dopamine beta-monooxygenase (DBM), peptidylglycine alpha-amidating monooxygenase (PAM), and the selenoenzyme glutathione peroxidase (GPX) were measured in the atria and ventricles. Cu deficiency resulted in lower specific activities of all cuproenzymes, with the exception of ventricular PAM. GPX was not altered by chamber region or diet. Specific activity of PAM was 200-fold higher in atria than in ventricles in control rats. Catecholamine analyses by HPLC confirmed that, like ventricular tissue, atria of Cu-deficient rats had lower noreplnephrine and higher dopamine concentrations, consistent with lower DBM activity. Another experiment detected no differences between the two dietary groups in mean arterial blood pressure, heart rates, or responses after challenge with anglotensin II, phenylepherine, or acetylocholine in cannulated rats. In this Cu-deficient rat model, all chambers of the heart exhibit similar and marked hypertrophy. Biochemical alterations following dietary Cu deficiency were also similar in atria and ventricles. The hypertrophic response appears different from the response to simple pressure or volume overload.

Cardiac hypertrophy in copper-deficient rats is not attenuated by angiotensin II receptor antagonist L-158,809.

We tested the hypothesis that cardiac hypertrophy which accompanies copper (Cu) deficiency was mediated by angiotensin II (Ang II). Thirty 17-day-old male Holtzman rats were offered a semipurified low-Cu diet (0.45 mg Cu/kg) for 39 days. Fifteen controls (Cu adequate) were given supplemental Cu (20 microgram/ml) in their drinking water, the other 15 (Cu deficient) were given deionized water. Five from each dietary treatment group were chronically infused by using osmotic pumps for 4 weeks with the Ang II receptor antagonist L-158,809, and five from each group were infused with propylene glycol vehicle. Five from each group were not implanted. Blood pressure (BP) changes to injection of Ang II, phenylephrine, and acetylcholine were monitored in cannulated rats. Cu-deficient rats had higher heart weight, left ventricular (LV)/body weight (BW), right ventricular (RV)/BW, lower mean BP, and coronary vascular resistance (CVR) than Cu-adequate rats. L-158-809 did not alter Cu levels or RV/BW in either dietary group, but did lower LV/BW, CVR, and mean BP in both dietary groups. Since Ang II blockage lowered HW/BW and LV/BW in both groups, the stimulus for cardiac hypertrophy in Cu-deficient rats remains unknown.

Auditory startle response is diminished in rats after recovery from perinatal copper deficiency.

Recovery from perinatal copper deficiency was studied in female and male Sprague Dawley rats for 6 mo. Month-old offspring reared by dams on copper-deficient treatment starting d 7 of pregnancy had up to 80% reductions in regional brain copper concentrations compared with offspring from copper-supplemented dams. Liver copper concentrations and plasma ceruloplasmin diamine oxidase activities of copper-deficient rats were restored to control levels within 1 mo of nutritional repletion with dietary copper. However, brain copper concentrations, with the exception of the hypothalamus and medulla, remain lower than in controls even after 5 mo of treatment. Rats were screened for startle responses and foot splay after 1, 3 and 5 mo of repletion. Diminished auditory startle was evident in rats of both sexes at all repletion times tested, whereas tactile startle and preimpulse inhibition of tactile startle were not influenced by prior copper deficiency, suggesting auditory sensory perception abnormalities. In a separate study, postweaning male rats deprived of dietary copper for 5 wk exhibited clear signs of copper deficiency but normal acoustic startle responses and foot splay. Long-term neurochemical and behavioral abnormalities persist in rats after perinatal copper deficiency.

Alterations of rat brain peptidylglycine alpha-amidating monooxygenase and other cuproenzyme activities following perinatal copper deficiency.

Perinatal copper (Cu) deficiency was studied in month-old female and male Sprague-Dawley rat offspring to investigate regional changes in brain cuproenzymes. Offspring of dams given the low Cu treatment beginning at Day 7 of gestation exhibited signs characteristic of Cu deficiency including a 70% reduction in liver Cu levels compared with Cu-adequate controls. Compared with Cu-adequate rats, Cu-deficient rats had lower activities of the cuproenzymes peptidylglycine alpha-amidating monooxygenase (PAM), cytochrome c oxydase (CCO), and Cu,Zn-superoxide dismutase (SOD) in all six brain regions studied. Apparent activity of dopamine-beta-monooxygenase (DBM) was higher in all regions from Cu-deficient compared with Cu-adequate rats. Activity of the selenoenzyme glutathione peroxidase (GPX) was not greatly altered in brain by Cu deficiency. Following 1 month of Cu repletion, liver but not brain Cu levels were equivalent to control. Brain CCO activity was still lower in Cu-repleted female and male rats. PAM activity was still lower in cerebrum of Cu-repleted rats. DBM activity was no longer significantly elevated in the former Cu-deficient groups except for midbrain. SOD and GPX activity were equivalent between groups. PAM activity, in vitro, is lower in the brain following perinatal Cu deficiency and activity is slow to recover following nutritional supplementation with Cu. Perhaps neuropeptide maturation is compromised by Cu deficiency.

Copper deficiency alters rat peptidylglycine alpha-amidating monooxygenase activity.

Perinatal copper deficiency was studied in 1-mo-old female and male Sprague-Dawley rat offspring to investigate changes in cuproenzymes. Offspring of dams given the low Cu treatment beginning at d 7 of gestation exhibited signs characteristic of Cu deficiency, including a 90% reduction in liver Cu levels compared with Cu-adequate controls. Compared with Cu-adequate rats, Cu-deficient rats had lower activities of the cuproenzymes peptidylglycine alpha-amidating monooxygenase (PAM), cytochrome c oxidase (CCO), and Cu,Zn-superoxide dismutase (SOD) in heart and midbrain samples. Activity of dopamine-beta-monooxygenase (DBM) was higher in midbrain and lower in heart samples from Cu-deficient compared with Cu-adequate rats. Following 1 mo of Cu repletion, PAM and CCO activity were still lower in heart of Cu-replete rats. Midbrain DBM activity was still elevated in the former Cu-deficient males. A second study was conducted using weanling male Holtzman rats. After 5.5 wk of treatment, Cu-deficient rats had signs characteristic of Cu deficiency and lower PAM, CCO and DBM activities in heart but not midbrain as compared with Cu-adequate rats. The PAM activity was lower following Cu deficiency. Perhaps neuropeptide maturation is compromised by Cu deficiency.

Regional specificity in alterations of rat brain copper and catecholamines following perinatal copper deficiency.

Perinatal copper deficiency was studied in 1-month-old female and male Sprague-Dawley rat offspring to investigate regional changes in brain copper and catecholamine levels. Offspring of dams given the low copper treatment beginning at day 7 of gestation exhibited signs characteristic of deficiency such as impaired growth and 10-fold lower liver copper levels compared with copper-adequate controls. Regional analysis of brain copper by graphite furnace atomic absorption spectroscopy revealed uniform and severe reduction of copper to levels 20 +/- 3% of controls in all regions, except the hypothalamus, where reductions to 56 and 28% of those in copper-adequate females and males, respectively, were measured. HPLC analysis revealed significant reductions in norepinephrine levels in cerebrum, mid-brain, corpus striatum, cerebellum, and medulla-pons of copper-deficient offspring ranging between 39 and 67% of control values. There were no significant differences in norepinephrine concentration in the hypothalamus. There was a significant, one-third reduction of dopamine in the corpus striatum of copper-deficient male rats. Consistent with altered in vivo dopamine beta-monooxygenase activity, there were five-, three-, and twofold elevations of dopamine in cerebellum, medulla-pons, and hypothalamus of copper-deficient rats. Spectrophotometric measurement of in vitro dopamine beta-monooxygenase activity of brain and adrenal homogenates was higher in copper-deficient rats, confirming prior work. An explanation for the in vitro data is unclear. Changes in copper and catecholamine levels were influenced by diet and were regionally selective, especially in the hypothalamus.