The effect of a hiding space on the behaviour and heart rate variability of dairy calves during temporary separation from the dam.

In natural settings, newborn calves hide for several days before joining the herd. It is unclear whether dairy calves housed indoors would show similar hiding behaviour. This study aimed to describe the use of an artificial hide provided to calves during temporary separation from the dam and assess the effect it has on lying and sleep-like behaviour, as well as heart rate variability (HRV). Twenty-eight cow-calf pairs were randomly assigned to having a hide (n = 14), or no hide (n = 14). Hide use (n = 14), as well as lying and sleep-like behaviour (n = 28), were recorded continuously via video camera during the first hour after the dam was removed for morning milking on day three to seven. Heart rate and R-R intervals were recorded using Polar equine monitors for a subsample of 12 calves (n = 6 per treatment) on day six. Descriptive statistics were calculated for hide use. Wilcoxon Signed Rank tests were used to evaluate whether having a hide affected lying and sleep-like behaviours as well as HRV. Hide use decreased over days and was highly variable between calves. Lying behaviour did not differ between treatments. Duration of sleep-like behaviour was higher for calves without a hide compared to those with a hide. Calves with a hide tended to show signs of higher HRV and parasympathetic activity compared to calves without a hide. Results suggest that providing a hiding space to young calves may be beneficial during periods when the cow is removed from the pen for milking.

Dairy producers' colostrum practices, marketing, and attitudes toward male dairy calves.

Optimal early-life care of surplus calves born on dairy farms is critical for health and welfare. This cross-sectional study aimed to describe the marketing practices of male dairy calves, differences in the colostrum management between male and female calves on dairy farms, and the relationship between discrepant colostrum practices and dairy producers' attitudes toward male calf care. United States dairy producers (n = 1,000) in the states of Florida, Michigan, Ohio, Vermont, and Wisconsin were selected using stratified random sampling. A questionnaire containing questions about farm demographics, colostrum management (including quantity and timeliness of colostrum delivery), and producers' attitudes toward male calf care was mailed in February 2021. Attitudes toward male calf care were assessed using 5-point Likert scales for 10 statements regarding perceptions of the value of male calves and barriers in providing optimal care. Producer responses to questions about the quantity and timeliness of colostrum delivery between male and female calves were compared using a nonparametric Wilcoxon rank-sum test. Multivariable logistic regression models were used to investigate the association between differences in colostrum management and producers' attitudes. By May 2021, 953 surveys were delivered and 315 (33.1%) were returned with complete responses. Most producers (>90%) reported feeding equal volumes of colostrum and performing the first postbirth feeding within a similar time frame for male and female calves. However, compared with females, male calves had a longer delay to the first colostrum feeding. Approximately 40% of producers marketed their male calves through auctions, and over half (54.6%) of farms sold the male calves between 3 and 10 d of age. Large farms (≥500 lactating cows) were found to market male calves at a younger age (≤3 d of age). Most producers (>78%) believed their male calves were receiving optimal care and did not consider the workload and financial costs as obstacles to providing good care to male calves. However, those who viewed the workload as an obstacle to good care and produced organic products were marginally more likely to feed a lower volume of colostrum to male calves in the first feeding after birth. These findings suggest that interventions to improve colostrum practices should be more broadly targeted to all calves born on dairy farms, and that age at transport is markedly different between large and small farms.

How can better calf care be realized on dairy farms? A qualitative interview study of veterinarians and farmers.

Improving health and welfare outcomes for replacement and surplus dairy calves is important for the sustainability of the dairy industry. Dairy farmers and veterinarians hold expertise in calf management and have valuable perspectives on how to practically motivate improvements. The objective of this study was to determine strategies that could improve the care calves receive on dairy farms from the perspective of dairy farmers and their herd veterinarians. Two veterinary clinics specializing in dairy practice in British Columbia, Canada, and 21 of their client dairy farms participated in the project. Following a meeting in which calf colostrum management was discussed between farmers and their herd veterinarian, participant interviews were conducted. Separate interviews were conducted for the farmers (n = 27 farmers from 21 farms) and their herd veterinarians (n = 7, with 1 to 5 farms that each vet worked with enrolled in the study) using tailored semi-structured question guides. Interviews (n = 42) were transcribed and coded following inductive thematic analysis methodology. The themes identified included strategies for farmers, veterinarians, and calf buyers, as well as contexts that influenced the dairy farmers' internal motivation to provide good calf care. Results indicated that farmers could optimize their calf management through fostering engagement of calf care personnel or by enlisting technology. Veterinarians could provide support to farms by being actively involved in calf monitoring, assisting in developing operating protocols, and setting goals, and especially by using farm-specific data to guide their management recommendations. Calf buyers could communicate with and provide accountability to farmers and improve their purchasing strategies to encourage farms to raise more vigorous surplus calves. Farmers' personal values, social networks, and relationships with different dairy industry stakeholders influenced their concern about the standards of their calf care practices. These findings provide guidance on how dairy farmers could achieve or be prompted to achieve improvements in their calf care practices.

How benchmarking motivates colostrum management practices on dairy farms: A realistic evaluation.

This study used realistic evaluation to determine how, and in which circumstances, providing dairy farmers with benchmarked data on their calves can motivate improved colostrum management practices. Dairy farmers from British Columbia, Canada, were recruited through 2 veterinary clinics that offered benchmarking of calf data as part of their services. For approximately 8 wk, blood samples were collected from newborn calves to evaluate serum total protein concentrations as an indicator of the effectiveness of the farmer's colostrum management. These data were analyzed separately for heifer calves ("replacement calves") and non-replacement calves, including males and beef crossbred females ("surplus calves"). The results of these analyses were benchmarked against other participating herds and presented to dairy farmers (n = 27) by their herd veterinarian (n = 7). Follow-up interviews were conducted separately with the farmers and veterinarians after each meeting to determine their perspectives on the utility of this benchmarking strategy. Therefore, a total of 42 interviews were coded, and realistic evaluation was used to determine common contexts and mechanisms that contributed to the success or failure of the benchmark meeting, with success characterized by farmers' expressed intention to improve their colostrum management practices. Four important contexts were identified that influenced the outcome of the benchmark meetings: (1) farm resources (e.g., facility limitations), (2) the farmer's perception of their calf performance, (3) management strategies, and (4) the farmer's personal values. Depending on these contexts, some farmers intended to improve their calf care practices based on resources the benchmark meeting provided, which included illustrative data and veterinary advice. These resources motivated change through influencing farmer decision-making, which depended on the value they saw in the data as a decision-making tool. The economic or moral interest farmers expressed in their surplus calves also influenced whether farmers intended to implement management changes. Recommendations for future implementation of benchmarking include targeting producers who are motivated to improve and who value the future performance of their calves, those who have engaged calf care personnel, and those who prefer data-driven decision-making. This study supports the important role veterinarians can play in motivating improved calf care practices through providing benchmarking services.

Serum total protein concentrations in surplus dairy calves in British Columbia.

Objective: This cross-sectional study aimed to evaluate serum total protein (STP) concentrations in surplus calves in British Columbia and explore associated factors including calf breed, sex, hydration, month of sampling, and frequency of calf pickup. Animal: Neonatal dairy and dairy-beef crossbred calves recently purchased from dairy farms and transported to an assembly facility. Procedure: Calves included in this study (N = 1449) were assessed at an assembly facility from March to August 2021, and blood samples were collected to measure STP as an indicator of transfer of passive immunity (TPI). Associations between STP and calf characteristics (breed, sex, hydration), month of sampling, and how frequently calves were collected from the source dairy farms (daily versus twice weekly or less) were evaluated with a linear regression model including farm as a random effect. Results: Of the 1433 serum samples, 24% had STP concentrations that were "poor:" defined as < 5.1 g/dL, and the proportion with poor STP varied widely among farms. Dairy-beef crossbred calves and calves that were dehydrated had higher STP concentrations, whereas those sampled in July had lower STP. This study was limited to calves purchased by 1 calf buyer but represented a large number of calves from 12% of the dairy farms in British Columbia. Conclusion: Approximately 1/4 of surplus dairy calves had poor STP concentrations. Clinical relevance: Ensuring surplus dairy calves have successful TPI is an important opportunity to bolster their health and welfare.

Concentrations sériques des protéines totales chez les veaux laitiers excédentaires en Colombie-Britannique. Objectif: Cette étude transversale visait à évaluer les concentrations sériques des protéines totales (STP) chez les veaux excédentaires en Colombie-Britannique et à explorer les facteurs associés, notamment la race de veau, le sexe, l'hydratation, le mois d'échantillonnage et la fréquence de ramassage des veaux. Animal: Veaux nouveau-nés issus de croisements laitier et laitier-boeuf achetés récemment à des fermes laitières et transportés vers une installation commune. Procédure: Les veaux inclus dans cette étude (N = 1449) ont été évalués dans une installation commune de mars à août 2021, et des échantillons de sang ont été prélevés pour mesurer les STP comme indicateur du transfert de l'immunité passive (TPI). Les associations entre les STP et les caractéristiques des veaux (race, sexe, hydratation), le mois d'échantillonnage et la fréquence à laquelle les veaux ont été ramassés dans les fermes laitières d'origine (quotidiennement versus deux fois par semaine ou moins) ont été évaluées avec un modèle de régression linéaire incluant la ferme comme effet aléatoire. Résultats: Sur les 1433 échantillons de sérum, 24 % présentaient des concentrations de STP « médiocres ¼ définies comme < 5,1 g/dL, et la proportion avec des STP médiocres variait considérablement d'une ferme à l'autre. Les veaux issus de croisements lait-boeuf et les veaux déshydratés présentaient des concentrations de STP plus élevées, tandis que ceux échantillonnés en juillet présentaient des concentrations de STP plus faibles. Cette étude se limitait aux veaux achetés par un acheteur de veaux, mais représentait un grand nombre de veaux provenant de 12 % des fermes laitières de la Colombie-Britannique. Conclusion: Environ le quart des veaux laitiers excédentaires avaient de faibles concentrations de STP. Pertinence clinique: Veiller à ce que les veaux laitiers excédentaires aient un transfert d'immunité passive réussie est une occasion importante de renforcer leur santé et leur bien-être.(Traduit par Dr Serge Messier).

Livestock haulers' views about dairy cattle transport in Atlantic Canada.

Surplus dairy calves and cull cows are often transported from the dairy farm to a variety of destinations and may experience compromised health and welfare in the process. Increasing interest in farm animal welfare by many stakeholders, including the public and policymakers, has brought about recent changes to livestock transport regulations in Canada that have likely affected transport operations across the country. The Atlantic region may be especially affected as a result of a smaller number of farms, and geography that often requires cattle to be transported long distances. We interviewed 7 livestock haulers in Atlantic Canada regarding their attitudes toward the recent changes to the transport regulations, particularly with regard to how these changes affected their business practices and dairy cattle welfare, as certain regulatory changes pertaining to calf transport were expected to disrupt existing transport practices. Thematic analysis of interview transcripts revealed 2 themes among participants: (1) calf (and sometimes adult cow) welfare and management during transport and on the dairy farm, and (2) feasibility of transport requirements and the enforcement of the regulations, including animosity toward other haulers and the challenge of satisfying both regulatory bodies and farmer clientele. These findings provide insight into the perspectives of an important, and often overlooked, stakeholder in the dairy industry on the transport system and highlight the need for inclusion of diverse voices when creating new policy.

A survey of male and female dairy calf care practices and opportunities for change.

The primary objective of this study was to compare male and female dairy calf management practices and evaluate risk factors associated with differences in care. Secondary objectives were to understand surplus calf transportation and marketing practices and investigate incentives to motivate calf care improvements. An online survey was distributed to all dairy producers in Ontario (n = 3,367) from November 2020 to March 2021 and Atlantic Canada (n = 557) from April to June 2021. Dairy producers were identified through provincial dairy associations and contacted via e-mail and social media. Descriptive statistics were computed, and a logistic regression model was created to evaluate factors associated with using discrepant feeding practices (i.e., fed less colostrum, fed colostrum later, or fed raw, unsalable milk) for male calves compared with females. The survey had a 7.4% response rate (n = 289/3,924) and was primarily filled out by farm owners (76%). Although colostrum and milk feeding practices were similar between male and female calves, male calves received less milk while still on the dairy farm of origin compared with females. Male calves were also more likely to be fed a higher proportion of raw, unsalable milk. Female producers and those that kept their male calves beyond 10 d of age had lower odds of using poorer feeding practices for male calves. Male calves were mostly sold between 1 and 10 d (64%), primarily through direct sales to a calf-rearing facility (45%), with auctions being the next most common method (35%). A small but notable proportion of producers (18%) agreed that euthanizing male calves is a reasonable alternative when their sale price is very low; however, few producers (13%) reported that financial costs limited their male calf care. The largest proportion (43%) of producers reported that a price premium for more vigorous calves would motivate them to take better care of their male calves. Conversely, only 28% of producers reported that a price discount for calves in poor condition would be motivating. Producers placed importance on the opinion of their calf buyer, their herd veterinarian, and the Canadian Code of Practice for the Care and Handling of Dairy Cattle when considering their calf care practices, and they highly valued practices that promote calf health. Respondents to this survey reported a lower proportion of tiestall barn use and higher milk productivity compared with typical dairy herds in the region, suggesting selection bias for more progressive dairy producers. Nevertheless, our results suggest that dairy producers provide similar care between male and female calves, but some male calves experience challenges due to milk feeding and marketing practices. Feedback from calf buyers along with continued support and guidance from herd veterinarians and the Code of Practice may motivate dairy producers to improve male calf care.

A first time for everything: The influence of parity on the behavior of transition dairy cows.

Over the last 20 years an increasing amount of research has described how dairy cow behavior changes during the few weeks before and after parturition, also known as the transition period. Dairy cows experience several challenges during this period, including pain associated with pregnancy and labor, social stressors associated with pen moves, changes in diet, and navigating new routines that include daily milking in a parlor or automatic milking system. For cows calving for the first time ("primiparous"), these experiences may be particularly challenging compared with those animals who have calved previously ("multiparous"). The objectives of this review are to (1) summarize the research to date on behavioral differences between primiparous and multiparous animals during the transition period, (2) describe the effect of management practices, such as regrouping and milking, on primiparous animals, and (3) suggest management recommendations and future directions for research focused on the behavior of primiparous cows.

Assessing dairy calf response to long-distance transportation using conditioned place aversion.

Surplus neonatal dairy calves are routinely transported long distances from the dairy farm of birth to calf raisers. Most of the research assessing the effect of transportation on young calves has focused on physiology and health, without considering calf affective states. The aim of this study was to assess the affective response of young male dairy calves to transportation using conditioned place aversion (CPA) testing. Three bouts of transportation exposed dairy calves (n = 95) to transportation for 6 (n = 31), 12 (n = 32), or 16 h (n = 30). During transportation, the trailer interior was made visually distinct using blue horizontal (n = 2 groups) or red vertical (n = 1 group) stripes. Distinct color and pattern combinations were used to create a visual association with transportation. A subset of calves (6 h = 14; 12 h = 14; 16 h = 14) were selected for CPA testing if they were ≥7 and <28 d of age at the time of testing after transport. A group of sham calves that were not transported (n = 13) and were ≥7 and <28 d of age at the time of testing also were enrolled. Wall coverings with the same color and pattern of those in the trailer were fixed in individual sham calf stalls for 6 h on the morning of transportation. Before transportation, calves were placed in a 3-compartment test apparatus with neutral walls and were able to move about freely for 15 min to habituate them to the test apparatus. Calves were CPA tested on d 2 after transportation. During the posttest, calves were placed in the test apparatus with 3 compartments including a neutral center pen (center), blue horizontal stripe compartment (side), and red vertical stripe compartment (side) for 30 min; calves were able to move throughout the apparatus freely. Time spent in each compartment was recorded using continuous observation and analyzed as a percentage of total time in the apparatus. Calves spent less time in the compartment associated with transportation compared with the compartment with no prior association (22% vs. 42% ± 3% of time in the transportation-association and no-association compartments, respectively); however, this behavior was not affected by transportation treatment. Results from this study suggest that calves may perceive transportation to be aversive regardless of duration but may also be attracted to exploring a novel stimulus.

The impact of providing hiding spaces to farmed animals: A scoping review.

Many wild animals perform hiding behaviours for a variety of reasons, such as evading predators or other conspecifics. Unlike their wild counterparts, farmed animals often live in relatively barren environments without the opportunity to hide. Researchers have begun to study the impact of access to hiding spaces ("hides") in farmed animals, including possible effects on animal welfare. The aims of this scoping review were to: 1) identify the farmed species that have been most used in research investigating the provision of hides, 2) describe the context in which hides have been provided to farmed animals, and 3) describe the impact (positive, negative or neutral/inconclusive) that hides have on animals, including indicators of animal welfare. Three online databases (CAB Abstracts, Web of Science, and PubMed) were used to search for a target population of farmed animals with access to hiding spaces. From this search, 4,631 citations were screened and 151 were included in the review. Fourteen animal types were represented, most commonly chickens (48% of papers), cattle (9%), foxes (8%), and fish (7%). Relatively few papers were found on other species including deer, quail, ducks, lobsters, turkeys, and goats. Hides were used in four contexts: at parturition or oviposition (56%), for general enrichment (43%), for neonatal animals (4%), or for sick or injured animals (1%). A total of 218 outcomes relevant to our objectives were found including 7 categories: hide use, motivation, and/or preference (47% of outcomes), behavioural indicators of affective state (17%), health, injuries, and/or production (16%), agonistic behaviour (8%), abnormal repetitive behaviours (6%), physiological indicators of stress (5%), and affiliative behaviours (1%). Hiding places resulted in 162 positive (74%), 14 negative (6%), and 42 neutral/inconclusive (19%) outcomes. Hides had a generally positive impact on the animals included in this review; more research is encouraged for under-represented species.

The application of allostasis and allostatic load in animal species: A scoping review.

Principles of allostasis and allostatic load have been widely applied in human research to assess the impacts of chronic stress on physiological dysregulation. Over the last few decades, researchers have also applied these concepts to non-human animals. However, there is a lack of uniformity in how the concept of allostasis is described and assessed in animals. The objectives of this review were to: 1) describe the extent to which the concepts of allostasis and allostatic load are applied theoretically to animals, with a focus on which taxa and species are represented; 2) identify when direct assessments of allostasis or allostatic load are made, which species and contexts are represented, what biomarkers are used, and if an allostatic load index was constructed; and 3) detect gaps in the literature and identify areas for future research. A search was conducted using CABI, PubMed, Agricola, and BIOSIS databases, in addition to a complementary hand-search of 14 peer-reviewed journals. Search results were screened, and articles that included non-human animals, as well as the terms "allostasis" or "allostatic" in the full text, were included. A total of 572 articles met the inclusion criteria (108 reviews and 464 peer-reviewed original research). Species were represented across all taxa. A subset of 63 publications made direct assessments of allostatic load. Glucocorticoids were the most commonly used biomarker, and were the only biomarker measured in 25 publications. Only six of 63 publications (9.5%) constructed an allostatic load index, which is the preferred methodology in human research. Although concepts of allostasis and allostatic load are being applied broadly across animal species, most publications use single biomarkers that are more likely indicative of short-term rather than chronic stress. Researchers are encouraged to adopt methodologies used in human research, including the construction of species-specific allostatic load indexes.

Assessing Allostatic Load in Ring-Tailed Lemurs (Lemur catta).

Responses to stress are unavoidable, adaptive mechanisms in humans and non-human animals. However, in humans, chronic stress has been linked to poor health outcomes and early mortality. Allostatic load, the physiologic dysregulation that occurs when an organism is exposed to chronic stressors, has been used to assess stress in humans; less work has been done using non-human primates. Our aim was to determine the relationship between allostatic load in ring-tailed lemurs (Lemur catta) under human care and potentially stressful individual, social, medical and husbandry factors, as well a sex and age. An allostatic load index (ALI) was calculated for 38 lemurs using six biomarkers measured in serum (albumin, cortisol, dehydroepiandrosterone-sulfate, DNA damage, glucose and prostaglandin E2). Potentially stressful factors were recorded over the lifetime of each lemur using medical and husbandry records. Animals with a higher percentage of time spent indoors, those kept in smaller average group sizes, and those with fewer minor group composition changes had, or tended to have, higher ALI. There was no relationship between ALI and sex or age. Some social and husbandry factors were associated with allostatic load in lemurs, indicating that this index may be a useful tool in assessing and determining factors contributing to stress of lemurs and other animals under human care.

A focus group study of Ontario dairy producer perspectives on neonatal care of male and female calves.

Providing optimal calf care remains a challenge on many dairy farms and has important implications for the future health, welfare, and productivity of male and female calves. Recent research suggests that male dairy calves receive a lower quality of care early in life than female calves, but further investigation is required to determine the factors that influence this disparity. The objectives of this study were to understand dairy producer perspectives on neonatal calf care practices and explore differences between male and female calf care. Overall, 23 dairy producers in Ontario, Canada, participated in 4 focus groups about calf care practices that were recorded and evaluated qualitatively using thematic analysis. Major barriers for good calf care included lack of knowledge about the best management practices for calf care and the prioritization of farm resources toward the milking herd. Some producers also noted that farm infrastructure (particularly during challenging weather) and employee training were important limitations. The economic cost of providing good neonatal calf care was important primarily for male calves and acted as a motivation or a barrier depending on the producer's beliefs about calf care and how they chose to market their calves. The primary source of knowledge producers used to develop calf care practices was their own experience, although many also relied on dairy-industry advisors, most often veterinarians. Producers were motivated by social norms, along with intrinsic pride and obligation to provide good calf care, and these motives were influenced by their emotional state. Producers expressed beliefs about which aspects of calf care are most important-notably colostrum management-and appreciated simple and economical solutions to calf-rearing challenges. Calf care practices were varied, and we identified a diversity of knowledge, motivations, and barriers to adopting best management practices, which sometimes differed between male and female calves. Some producers said that they did not know what happened to their male calves after they left the farm and tended to prioritize the care of female over male calves in subtle ways, such as less timely provision of colostrum. The infrastructure investment and other costs associated with caring for male calves often limited their care, but producers were still motivated to provide adequate care for male calves. These findings represent potential targets for additional research and intervention strategies to improve calf care practices on dairy farms.

Impact of a Frame Reflection Assignment on Veterinary Student Perspectives toward Animal Welfare and Differing Viewpoints.

Veterinarians are considered leaders in animal welfare, but veterinary curricula often lack training in welfare. Our aims were to describe veterinary student values, assess whether a frame reflection assignment can encourage student willingness to engage with others with differing values surrounding animal welfare, and determine if sex and career area of emphasis related to responses. Two cohorts of second-year veterinary students at the Ohio State University (n = 314) articulated their values (including those of biological functioning, affective states or natural living they value most), interviewed someone with differing values, reported their interviewee's views as if they were their own (frame reflection), then reflected on the process (post-interview reflection). Qualitative and quantitative analyses were used. Students identified as 83% female and 17% male,a with small animal (56%), large animal (11%), mixed animal (15%), or other (19%) career areas of emphasis. Students valued affective states (45%) and biological functioning (42%) more than natural living (11%). Food animal students were more likely to value biological functioning. In their post-interview reflections, students articulated both productive and unproductive views (e.g., likely or unlikely to improve future conversations, respectively), though productive views were more common. Students reported that the assignment would benefit their careers by improving their communication strategies with clients. Female students were more likely to use themes related to unproductive and career-related views. We conclude that a frame reflection assignment is a novel and effective method for improving veterinary student communication skills when discussing controversial animal welfare topics.

Determination of Dairy Cattle Euthanasia Criteria and Analysis of Barriers to Humane Euthanasia in the United States: The Veterinarian Perspective.

When dairy cattle become ill or injured to the extent that recovery is unlikely or impossible, on-farm euthanasia should be used as a tool to eliminate pain and suffering. Our study aimed to identify decision-making criteria and the most common factors considered by veterinarians when making and carrying out euthanasia decisions. Dairy cattle veterinarians were recruited to participate in an online survey (Part I, 61 surveys collected) or in one of three focus groups (Part II, 4-10 veterinarians/group, n = 22). Part I (survey): Surveyed veterinarians varied regarding health condition management and demonstrated a strong proclivity to treat compromised cattle, mirroring trends amongst dairy producers identified in previous research. Sixty percent of respondents indicated that most facilities for which they serve as the primary veterinarian have a written euthanasia protocol in place. Part II (focus groups): Three main themes about euthanasia decision-making (logistical, animal, and human) were identified from focus group discussions. Discussions focused primarily on logistical factors such as financial considerations and client/public perceptions. Development of specific standards for euthanasia, alongside interactive training programs for dairy veterinarians and producers are vital next steps to improving cattle welfare and consistency in euthanasia decision-making across the United States dairy industry.

Determination of Dairy Cattle Euthanasia Criteria and Analysis of Barriers to Humane Euthanasia in the United States: Dairy Producer Surveys and Focus Groups.

There are currently no clear guidelines in the US and some other countries regarding euthanasia decision making timelines for dairy cattle that become injured or ill to the extent that recovery is unlikely or impossible. Our study aimed to identify decision making criteria and the most common factors considered when making and carrying out euthanasia decisions. Dairy producers were recruited to participate in a mailed survey (Part I, 307 completed surveys were returned) or in one of three focus groups (Part II, 8-10 producers/group, n = 24). Part I (survey): Farm owners were most commonly responsible for on-farm euthanasia and most respondents would treat and monitor compromised cattle for a majority of 15 health conditions. Responses were highly variable; for example, 6.3% and 11.7% of respondents would never euthanize a non-ambulatory cow or calf, respectively. Part II (focus groups): Three main themes (animal, human, and farm operation) were identified from discussion which focused primarily on animal welfare (16% of the discussion) and human psychology (16%). Participants expressed a desire to eliminate animal suffering by euthanizing, alongside a wide range of emotional states. Development of specific standards for euthanasia is a critical next step and more research is needed to understand the human emotions surrounding euthanasia decision making.

Evaluation of companion animal behavior knowledge among first-year veterinary students before and after an introductory animal behavior course.

OBJECTIVE: To survey first-year veterinary students' knowledge of companion animal (dog, cat, and horse) behavior and popular-culture (ie, pop-culture) behavior myths related to animal body language, motivations, and learning prior to participation in an introductory animal behavior course; evaluate potential associations between sources of prior behavior knowledge and knowledge on the preclass survey; and determine whether postclass scores on the same survey were predictive of final examination score for the behavior class. SAMPLE: 156 first-year veterinary students. PROCEDURES: Students were invited to participate in an anonymous electronic survey before and after a semester-long, 2-credit introductory animal behavior course. Demographic features, self-assessed animal behavior knowledge, and sources of prior behavior knowledge were evaluated as predictors of preclass survey knowledge scores. Postclass survey knowledge scores were evaluated for association with final examination scores as a measure of validity. RESULTS: Preclass knowledge scores were low (mean ± SD, 49 ± 12.7%; n = 152). Reporting peer-reviewed journal articles as a source of incoming knowledge predicted 9% higher scores, whereas reporting magazines or online pop-culture articles as a source of incoming knowledge predicted 7.6% lower scores for preclass behavior knowledge, compared with scores for students not citing those respective sources. Companion animal ownership was not associated with preclass survey knowledge scores. Postclass knowledge scores were substantially improved (mean ± SD, 84.3 ± 8%) and predictive of final examination scores. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Results indicated a profound deficit of behavior knowledge among veterinary students at the start of their curriculum. Students graduating from veterinary institutions without a comprehensive behavior course may be at a disadvantage for day 1 competency in addressing animal behavior problems.

Symposium review: Considerations for the future of dairy cattle housing: An animal welfare perspective.

Many contemporary dairy cattle housing practices are at odds with societal perceptions of positive animal welfare. The public (i.e., those external to the dairy industry) typically emphasizes the importance of naturalness for dairy cattle, such as through provision of pasture, freedom of movement, and the ability to interact socially with conspecifics. Yet, in the United States, the majority of lactating dairy cattle are reportedly housed without any access to pasture, and almost 39% of dairy farms use tiestalls, which restrict movement and social interactions. In addition to being in conflict with public expectations, a lack of pasture access and restrictive housing systems are also in conflict with the animals' own motivations, which can adversely affect their welfare. For example, dairy cattle are highly motivated to access pasture and show a reduction in oral stereotypies when allowed on pasture after periods of tethering. Calves housed without social contact have cognitive deficits and exhibit increased fear responses to novelty. We argue that the long-term sustainability of the dairy industry will depend on the extent to which housing systems reflect public concerns and the animals' priorities. The adoption of technologies, such as automated feeders and remote monitoring systems, may represent a means to practically promote the animals' natural behavior while simultaneously improving individualized care. Although older generations of the public may consider technological solutions to be a further deviation from naturalness and a departure from dairy farming's agrarian roots, the definition of "naturalness" for younger generations may well have expanded to include technology. As the buying power shifts to these younger generations, the adoption of technologies that promote natural cattle behaviors may be one means toward reconciling the disconnect between public perceptions of animal welfare and contemporary dairy farming practices.

Social Environment and Individual Differences in Feeding Behavior Are Associated with Risk of Endometritis in Dairy Cows.

Our aim was to determine whether individual differences in feeding and social behavior in different social environments affect health outcomes in dairy cows. We used eight groups of four animals per treatment assigned to either a 'predictable' or an 'unpredictable' and competitive social environment. Predictable cows were given free access to six feed bins with no change in feed delivery times; whereas, the unpredictable cows were required to share one feed bin with one resident cow and morning feed was delayed 0, 1, 2, or 3 h every other day. On alternate days, the unpredictable cows were also re-assigned to a new bin and a new resident partner. Low daily dry matter intake (DMI) was a risk factor for cytological endometritis in predictable cows (odds ratio (OR) (95% confidence interval): 0.17 (0.02, 0.53)), but low daily DMI was protective for unpredictable cows (OR: 1.93 (1.09, 4.14)). Although low rate of DMI (kg/min) was a risk factor for cytological endometritis for predictable cows (OR: 4.2 × 10-101 (8.6 × 10-206, 4.8 × 10-30)) it was unrelated to disease for unpredictable cows. There were no associations between feed bin visits or percentage of non-nutritive visits with the likelihood of cytological endometritis. This is the first evidence that individual differences in feeding behavior influence cytological endometritis risk in dairy cows, but the direction and magnitude of these effects is dependent on the social environment.

Maternal Behavior and Design of the Maternity Pen.

Labor is likely a painful and stressful experience for dairy cows. Understanding maternal behavior can help inform the design of maternity pens that best accommodate the cow. The maternity pen should provide the cow an opportunity to seclude from other cows and barn activity. It should also be well-bedded, dry, and cleaned regularly to create a comfortable environment and minimize the spread of pathogens to the cow and her calf. Management of the maternity pen should aim to reduce environmental and social stressors to encourage a smooth transition for cows into the lactating herd.