The primary cilium as a biomarker in the hypoxic adaptation of bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stromal cells: a role for the secreted frizzled-related proteins.

A pivotal role in guiding mesenchymal stem cell (MSC) differentiation has recently been attributed to the primary cilium. This solitary, non-motile microtubule-based organelle emerging from the cell surface acts as a sensorial membrane structure reflecting developmental and adaptive processes associated with pathologies including human cystic kidney disease, skeletal malformations, obesity and cancer. Given that the intrinsic hypoxic adaptation of MSC remains poorly understood within ischemic tissues or hypoxic tumours, we questioned whether the hypoxia inducible factor-1α (HIF-1α) might be a downstream effector regulating cilium maintenance. We show that murine bone marrow-derived MSC cultured under hypoxic conditions (1.2% O(2)) lose their primary cilia in a time-dependent manner. Gene silencing of HIF-1α prevented cilia loss in hypoxic cultures, and generation of MSC expressing a constitutively active HIF-1α (MSC-HIF) was found to decrease primary cilium formation. A Wnt pathway-related gene expression array was also performed on MSC-HIF and indicated that the secreted Frizzled-related proteins (sFRP)-1, -3 and -4 were down-regulated, while sFRP-2 was up-regulated. Overexpression of recombinant sFRP-2 or gene silencing of sFRP-1, -3 and -4 in MSC led to primary cilium disruption. These results indicate a molecular signalling mechanism for the hypoxic disruption of the primary cilium in MSC involving an HIF-1α/sFRP axis. This mechanism contributes to our understanding of the adaptive processes possibly involved in the oncogenic transformation and tumour-supporting potential of MSC. Our current observations also open up the possibility for the primary cilia to serve as a biomarker in MSC adaptation to low oxygen tension within (patho)physiological microenvironments.

A concerted HIF-1α/MT1-MMP signalling axis regulates the expression of the 3BP2 adaptor protein in hypoxic mesenchymal stromal cells.

Increased plasticity, migratory and immunosuppressive abilities characterize mesenchymal stromal cells (MSC) which enable them to be active participants in the development of hypoxic solid tumours. Our understanding of the oncogenic adaptation of MSC to hypoxia however lacks the identification and characterization of specific biomarkers. In this study, we assessed the hypoxic regulation of 3BP2/SH3BP2 (Abl SH3-binding protein 2), an immune response adaptor/scaffold protein which regulates leukocyte differentiation and motility. Gene silencing of 3BP2 abrogated MSC migration in response to hypoxic cues and generation of MSC stably expressing the transcription factor hypoxia inducible factor 1alpha (HIF-1α) resulted in increased endogenous 3BP2 expression as well as cell migration. Analysis of the 3BP2 promoter sequence revealed only one potential HIF-1α binding site within the human but none in the murine sequence. An alternate early signalling cascade that regulated 3BP2 expression was found to involve membrane type-1 matrix metalloproteinase (MT1-MMP) transcriptional regulation which gene silencing abrogated 3BP2 expression in response to hypoxia. Collectively, we provide evidence for a concerted HIF-1α/MT1-MMP signalling axis that explains the induction of adaptor protein 3BP2 and which may link protein binding partners together and stimulate oncogenic MSC migration. These mechanistic observations support the potential for malignant transformation of MSC within hypoxic tumour stroma and may contribute to evasion of the immune system by a tumour.

A role for MT1-MMP as a cell death sensor/effector through the regulation of endoplasmic reticulum stress in U87 glioblastoma cells.

Recent findings in cell death signalling show that membrane type 1 matrix metalloproteinase (MT1-MMP), an MMP known for its involvement in cancer cell invasion and metastasis, can act as a "bioswitch" in the invasion versus cell death decision in brain tumour cells. Given that the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a subcellular compartment involved in metabolic control and cell death signalling and that cytoskeleton disruption, as encountered during cancer cell invasion, can lead to ER stress, we questioned whether MT1-MMP contributes to ER stress. We found that MT1-MMP gene silencing or pharmacological inhibition of vesicular trafficking with Brefeldin-A abrogated MT1-MMP cell surface-mediated proMMP-2 activation by the lectin Concanavalin-A (ConA) in U87 glioblastoma cells. ConA, also known to trigger the expression of pro-inflammatory cyclooxygenase (COX)-2 through MT1-MMP signalling from the plasma membrane, failed to do so when MT1-MMP was prevented from reaching the cell surface by Brefeldin-A. Gene silencing of MT1-MMP antagonized the expression of ConA-induced COX-2 and of the ER stress marker glucose-related protein 78 (GRP78), further suggesting that plasma membrane localization of MT1-MMP contributes to signalling ER stress. MT1-MMP maturation, which partially occurs during its trafficking from the ER to the plasma membrane, showed correlation of the 60 kDa MT1-MMP with GRP78 expression. Finally, Brefeldin-A treatment of glioblastoma cells led to Akt dephosphorylation; this effect was reversed when MT1-MMP was silenced. Collectively, our results provide a molecular rationale for a new role for MT1-MMP in the regulation of cancer cell death processes through ER stress signalling.

The lectin concanavalin-A signals MT1-MMP catalytic independent induction of COX-2 through an IKKgamma/NF-kappaB-dependent pathway.

The lectin from Canavalia ensiformis (Concanavalin-A, ConA), one of the most abundant lectins known, enables one to mimic biological lectin/carbohydrate interactions that regulate extracellular matrix protein recognition. As such, ConA is known to induce membrane type-1 matrix metalloproteinase (MT1-MMP) which expression is increased in brain cancer. Given that MT1-MMP correlated to high expression of cyclooxygenase (COX)-2 in gliomas with increasing histological grade, we specifically assessed the early proinflammatory cellular signaling processes triggered by ConA in the regulation of COX-2. We found that treatment with ConA or direct overexpression of a recombinant MT1-MMP resulted in the induction of COX-2 expression. This increase in COX-2 was correlated with a concomitant decrease in phosphorylated AKT suggestive of cell death induction, and was independent of MT1-MMP's catalytic function. ConA- and MT1-MMP-mediated intracellular signaling of COX-2 was also confirmed in wild-type and in Nuclear Factor-kappaB (NF-kappaB) p65(-/-) mutant mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEF), but was abrogated in NF-kappaB1 (p50)(-/-) and in I kappaB kinase (IKK) gamma(-/-) mutant MEF cells. Collectively, our results highlight an IKK/NF-kappaB-dependent pathway linking MT1-MMP-mediated intracellular signaling to the induction of COX-2. That signaling pathway could account for the inflammatory balance responsible for the therapy resistance phenotype of glioblastoma cells, and prompts for the design of new therapeutic strategies that target cell surface carbohydrate structures and MT1-MMP-mediated signaling. Concise summary Concanavalin-A (ConA) mimics biological lectin/carbohydrate interactions that regulate the proinflammatory phenotype of cancer cells through yet undefined signaling. Here we highlight an IKK/NF-kappaB-dependent pathway linking MT1-MMP-mediated intracellular signaling to the induction of cyclooxygenase-2, and that could be responsible for the therapy resistance phenotype of glioblastoma cells.