Climate change-induced shifts in the food systems and diet-related non-communicable diseases in sub-Saharan Africa: a scoping review and a conceptual framework.

OBJECTIVES: To determine the relationship between climate change, food systems and diet-related non-communicable diseases (DR-NCDs) in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) and propose a conceptual framework for food systems in SSA. DESIGN: A scoping review. ELIGIBILITY CRITERIA: Studies included investigated the relationship between climate change and related systemic risks, food systems, DR-NCDs and its risk factors in SSA. Studies focusing on the association between climate change and DR-NCDs unrelated to food systems, such as social inequalities, were excluded. SOURCES OF EVIDENCE: A comprehensive search was conducted in ProQuest (nine databases), Google Scholar and PubMed in December 2022. CHARTING METHODS: Data extracted from studies included author, study type, country of study, climate change component, DR-NCD outcomes and risk factors, and impacts of climate change on DR-NCDs. A narrative approach was used to analyse the data. Based on the evidence gathered from SSA, we modified an existing food system conceptual framework. RESULTS: The search retrieved 19 125 studies, 10 of which were included in the review. Most studies used a cross-sectional design (n=8). Four explored the influence of temperature on liver cancer through food storage while four explored the influence of temperature and rainfall on diabetes and obesity through food production. Cross-sectional evidence suggested that temperature is associated with liver cancer and rainfall with diabetes. CONCLUSION: The review highlights the vulnerability of SSA's food systems to climate change-induced fluctuations, which in turn affect dietary patterns and DR-NCD outcomes. The evidence is scarce and concentrates mostly on the health effects of temperature through food storage. It proposes a conceptual framework to guide future research addressing climate change and DR-NCDs in SSA.

Long-term care use, hospitalizations and mortality during COVID-19 in Finland and Sweden: A nationwide register-based study in 2020.

AIM: To describe long-term care (LTC) use in Finland and Sweden in 2020, by reporting residential entry and exit patterns including hospital admissions and mortality, compared with the 2018-2019 period and community-living individuals. METHODS: From national registers in Finland and Sweden, all individuals 70+ were included. Using the Finnish and Swedish study populations in January 2018 as the standard population, we reported changes in sex- and age-standardized monthly rates of entry into and exit from LTC facilities, mortality and hospital admission among LTC residents and community-living individuals in 2020. RESULTS: Around 850,000 Finns and 1.4 million Swedes 70+ were included. LTC use decreased in both countries from 2018 to 2020. In the first wave (March/April 2020), Finland experienced a decrease in LTC entry rates and an increase in LTC exit rates, both more marked than Sweden. This was largely due to short-term movements. Mortality rates peaked in April and December 2020 for LTC residents in Finland, while mortality peaked for both community-living individuals and LTC residents in Sweden. A decrease in hospital admissions from LTC facilities occurred in April 2020 and was less marked in Finland versus Sweden. CONCLUSIONS: During the first wave of the pandemic mortality was consistently higher in Sweden. We also found a larger decrease in LTC use and, among LTC residents, a smaller decrease in hospital admissions in Finland than in Sweden. This study calls for assessing the health consequences of the differences observed between these two Scandinavian countries as part of the lessons from the COVID-19 pandemic.

The organisation and responsibility for care for older people in Denmark, Finland and Sweden: outline and comparison of care systems.

AIM: To outline the organisation and responsibility for health and social care provided to older people in Denmark, Finland and Sweden. METHODS: Non-quantifiable data on the care systems were collated from the literature and expert consultations. The responsibilities for primary healthcare, specialised healthcare, prevention and health promotion, rehabilitation, and social care were presented in relation to policy guidance, funding and organisation. RESULTS: In all three countries, the state issues policy and to some extent co-funds the largely decentralised systems; in Denmark and Sweden the regions and municipalities organise the provision of care services - a system that is also about to be implemented in Finland to improve care coordination and make access more equal. Care for older citizens focuses to a large extent on enabling them to live independently in their own homes. CONCLUSIONS: Decentralised care systems are challenged by considerable local variations, possibly jeopardising care equity. State-level decision and policy makers need to be aware of these challenges and monitor developments to prevent further health and social care disparities in the ageing population.

Nurses' Roles, Responsibilities and Actions in the Hospital Discharge Process of Older Adults with Health and Social Care Needs in Three Nordic Cities: A Vignette Study.

The hospital discharge process of older adults in need of both medical and social care post hospitalisation requires the involvement of nurses at multiple levels across the different phases. This study aims to examine and compare what roles, responsibilities and actions nurses take in the hospital discharge process of older adults with complex care needs in three Nordic cities: Copenhagen (Denmark), Stockholm (Sweden) and Tampere (Finland). A vignette-based interview study consisting of three cases was conducted face-to-face with nurses in Copenhagen (n = 11), Stockholm (n = 16) and Tampere (n = 8). The vignettes represented older patients with medical conditions, cognitive loss and various home situations. The interviews were conducted in the local language, recorded, transcribed and analysed thematically. The findings show that nurses exchanged information with both healthcare (all cities) and social care services (Copenhagen, Tampere). Nurses in all cities, particularly Stockholm, reported to inform, and also convince patients to make use of home care. Nurses in Stockholm and Tampere reported that some patients refuse care due to co-payment. Nurses in these two cities were more likely to involve close relatives, possibly due to such costs. Not accepting care, due to costs, poses inequity in later life. Additionally, organisational changes towards a shift in location of care, i.e., from hospital to home, and from professional to informal caregivers, might be reflected in the work of the nurses through their initiatives to convince older patients to accept home care and to involve close relatives.

Opportunities for transitional care and care continuity following hospital discharge of older people in three Nordic cities: A comparative study.

AIM: To outline and discuss care transitions and care continuity following hospital discharge of older people with complex care needs in three Nordic cities: Copenhagen, Tampere and Stockholm. METHODS: Data on potential pathways following hospital discharge of older people were obtained from existing literature and expert consultations. The pathways for each system were outlined and presented in three figures. The hospital discharge process of the systems was then compared. RESULTS: In all three care systems, the main care path from hospital is to home. Short-term intermediate healthcare can be provided in all three systems, possibly creating additional care transitions; however, once home, extensive home healthcare may prevent further care transitions. Opportunities for continuity of care include needs assessments (all cities) and meetings with the patient about care upon return home (Copenhagen, Stockholm). Yet this is challenged by lack of transfer of information (Tampere) and patients' having to apply for some services themselves (Tampere, Stockholm). CONCLUSIONS: Comparisons of the discharge processes studied suggest that despite individual care planning and short- and long-term care options, transitional care and care continuity are challenged by limited access as some services need to be applied for by the older person themselves.

Health system reforms and the needs of the ageing population-an analysis of recent policy paths and reform trends in Finland and Sweden.

Population ageing with an increasing number of people experiencing complex health and social care needs challenges health systems. We explore whether and how health system reforms and policy measures adopted during the past two decades in Finland and Sweden reflect and address the needs of the older people. We discuss health system characteristics that are important to meet the care needs of older people and analyse how health policy agendas have highlighted these aspects in Finland and Sweden. The analysis is based on "most similar cases". The two countries have rather similar health systems and are facing similar challenges. However, the policy paths to address these challenges are different. The Swedish health system is better resourced, and the affordability of care better ensured, but choice and market-oriented competition reforms do not address the needs of the people with complex health and social care needs, rather it has led to increased fragmentation. In Finland, the level of public funding is lower which may have negative impacts on people who need multiple services. However, in terms of integration and care coordination, Finland seems to follow a path which may pave the way for improved coordination of care for people with multiple care needs. Intensified monitoring and analysis of patterns of health care utilization among older people are warranted in both countries to ensure that care is provided equitably.

Experiences of people with memory disorders and their spouse carers on influencing formal care: "They ask my wife questions that they should ask me".

BACKGROUND: People with memory disorders often need care and help from family carers and health and social care providers. Due to the deterioration of cognitive capacity and language skills, they may be unable to convey their thoughts and care preferences to other people. As a result, their agency may become restricted. We investigated the descriptions provided by people with memory disorders and spousal carers of their influence on care in encounters with formal care providers. METHODS: Qualitative thematic analysis was used to identify, analyze, and report themes that describe encounters with professionals in different social or healthcare environments. In-depth interview data were gathered from 19 spouse carers and 15 persons with memory disorders. FINDINGS: Three themes out of four describe how people with memory disorders and their spouse carers influence formal care: Acquiescence, negotiating care decisions, and taking control. The fourth theme describes lack of influence. People with memory disorders and their spouse carers have ways to influence care, but spouse carers identified more ways of doing so. Both either accepted and followed the care guidelines by the formal carers or took control of the situation and made their own decisions. Spouse carers also sought to influence care decisions through negotiations with formal carers. When formal carers' decisions were experienced as inconsistent or the rationale of their actions difficult to follow, the possibilities to influence care were limited. CONCLUSIONS: People with memory disorders and their family carers are often in a disadvantaged position as they lack power over the health and social care decision-making during the illness, which is often guided by structural factors. To support the agency of people with memory disorders and to promote shared decision-making, clarification of the service structure and clearer communication between the different parties involved in care are required.

Purchases of medicines among community-dwelling older people: comparing people in the last 2 years of life and those who lived at least 2 years longer.

While it is known that those who are living their last years are frequent users of social and health services, research about medicines at the end of life is scarce. We examined whether the proportions of purchasers and the types of prescription medicines purchased during a 2-year period differed between community-dwelling old people who died (decedents) in 2002, 2006 or 2011 and old people who lived at least 2 years longer (survivors) in Finland. We also examined how those differences changed over time. The study population was identified from nationwide registers and consisted of 174,097 community-dwelling people who were 70 years of age or older. Of these, 81,893 were decedents and 92,204 survivors. Data on purchases of medicines were gathered from the Finnish prescription database. Along with descriptive analyses, binary logistic regression analysis was used to find the association between decedent status and the purchase of medicines in general and different categories of medicines in particular. Almost all community-dwelling decedents and survivors purchased medicines at least once during the 2-year period. Over time, the proportion of purchasers increased in both groups but especially among survivors, thereby reducing the differences between the groups. However, the probability of purchasing medicines in general and different categories of medicine in particular remained significantly higher for decedents than for survivors after adjustments. This study shows that purchases of medication are concentrated at the end of life, as is the use of social and health services. However, the differences between decedents and survivors diminish over time.

The Joint Impact of Age at Death and Dementia on Long-Term Care Use in the Last Years of Life: Changes From 1996 to 2013 in Finland.

Welfare states increasingly rely on aging in place policies and have cut back on institutional long-term care (LTC) provision. Simultaneously, the major determinants of LTC use, that is, dementia and living to very old age, are increasing. We investigated how increasing longevity and concomitant dementia were associated with changes in round-the-clock LTC use in the last 5 years of life between 1996 and 2013. Retrospective data drawn from national registers included all those who died aged 70+ in 2007 and 2013, plus a 40% random sample from 2001 (N = 86,554). A generalized estimating equations (GEE) were used to estimate the association of dementia and age with LTC use during three study periods 1996-2001, 2002-2007, and 2008-2013. Between the study periods, the total number of days spent in LTC increased by around 2 months. Higher ages at death and the increased number of persons with dementia contributed to this increase. The group of the most frequent LTC users, that is, people aged 90+ with or without dementia, grew the most in size, yet their LTC use decreased. The implications of very old age and concomitant dementia for care needs must be acknowledged to guarantee an adequate quantity and quality of care.

Successful Aging as a Predictor of Long-Term Care Among Oldest Old: The Vitality 90+ Study.

AIM: The aim of the study was to investigate whether successful aging (SA) predicts entering long-term care (LTC) among nonagenarians. METHODS: Data originated from the linkage of the Vitality 90+ Study surveys with register data from Finnish Population Register and Care Registers. Altogether 1,966 community-dwelling individuals were followed for 2 years and 1,354 individuals for 5 years. Four models of SA were constructed by varying combinations of physical, psychological, and social components. Competing risk regression analysis was used. FINDINGS: The incidence rate for entering LTC was lower for successful agers. Three models of SA presented a significantly decreased risk for entering LTC in the whole group and in women. The impact of SA was attenuated when living alone, needing help, and the year of participation were adjusted for, but was still significant for Model 3. CONCLUSION: Nonagenarians who meet the multidimensional criteria of SA are less likely to enter LTC than those aging less successfully.

Changes in older people's care profiles during the last 2 years of life, 1996-1998 and 2011-2013: a retrospective nationwide study in Finland.

OBJECTIVES: The time of death is increasingly postponed to a very high age. How this change affects the use of care services at the population level is unknown. This study analyses the care profiles of older people during their last 2 years of life, and investigates how these profiles differ for the study years 1996-1998 and 2011-2013. DESIGN: Retrospective cross-sectional nationwide data drawn from the Care Register for Health Care, the Care Register for Social Care and the Causes of Death Register. The data included the use of hospital and long-term care services during the last 2 years of life for all those who died in 1998 and in 2013 at the age of ≥70 years in Finland. METHODS: We constructed four care profiles using two criteria: (1) number of days in round-the-clock care (vs at home) in the last 2 years of life and (2) care transitions during the last 6 months of life (ie, end-of-life care transitions). RESULTS: Between the study periods, the average age at death and the number of diagnoses increased. Most older people (1998: 64.3%, 2013: 59.3%) lived at home until their last months of life (profile 2) after which they moved into hospital or long-term care facilities. This profile became less common and the profiles with a high use of care services became more common (profiles 3 and 4 together in 1998: 25.0%, in 2013: 30.9%). People with dementia, women and the oldest old were over-represented in the latter profiles. In both study periods, fewer than one in ten stayed at home for the whole last 6 months (profile 1). CONCLUSIONS: Postponement of death to a very old age may translate into more severe disability in the last months or years of life. Care systems must be prepared for longer periods of long-term care services needed at the end of life.

Trends in the use and costs of round-the-clock long-term care in the last two years of life among old people between 2002 and 2013 in Finland.

BACKGROUND: The structure of long-term care (LTC) for old people has changed: care has been shifted from institutions to the community, and death is being postponed to increasingly old age. The aim of the study was to analyze how the use and costs of LTC in the last two years of life among old people changed between 2002 and 2013. METHODS: Data were derived from national registers. The study population contains all those who died at the age of 70 years or older in 2002-2013 in Finland (N = 427,078). The costs were calculated using national unit cost information. Binary logistic regression and Cox proportional hazard models were used to study the association of year of death with use and costs of LTC. RESULTS: The proportion of those who used LTC and the sum of days in LTC in the last two years of life increased between 2002 and 2013. The mean number of days in institutional LTC decreased, while that for sheltered housing increased. The costs of LTC per user decreased. CONCLUSIONS: Use of LTC in the last two years of life increased, which was explained by the postponement of death to increasingly old age. Costs of LTC decreased as sheltered housing replaced institutional LTC. However, an accurate comparison of costs of different types of LTC is difficult, and the societal costs of sheltered housing are not well known.

Care service use in 2 years preceding suicide among older adults: comparison with those who died a natural death and those who lived longer.

The aim of the study is (1) to describe and analyse health and social service use and medicine purchases in the last 2 years of life among older adults who died by suicide and (2) to compare use and purchases between three groups: those who died by suicide, died a natural death or who lived longer. Nation-wide Finnish register data were used. The data consist of 316,639 decedents who died at the age of 70 years or older in 1998-2008 and 222,967 people who lived longer. Use of hospital, long-term care and home care, and the purchase of prescribed psychotropic medications were studied for the 2-year period. Binary logistic regression analyses were applied. 1118 older adults died by suicide (0.4 % of all deaths). A majority of older adults who died by suicide had multiple somatic diseases and mental disorders, especially depression, and had contact with health and social services in the last 2 years of life. At the same level of morbidity, use of hospital and long-term care was less common among those who died by suicide than among those who died of natural causes, but more common than among those who lived longer. Those who died by suicide received less home care than those who lived longer. A high proportion of suicides occurred in the first month following hospital discharge. Health and social services should improve support for older adults with chronic diseases and depression.

Long-term care is increasingly concentrated in the last years of life: a change from 2000 to 2011.

Background: The use of long-term care (LTC) is common in very old age and in the last years of life. It is not known how the use pattern is changing as death is being postponed to increasingly old age. The aim is to analyze the association between the use of LTC and approaching death among old people and the change in this association from 2000 to 2011. Methods: The data were derived from national registers. The study population consists of 315 458 case-control pairs. Cases (decedents) were those who died between 2000 and 2011 at the age of 70 years or over in Finland. The matched controls (survivors) lived at least 2 years longer. Use of LTC was studied for the last 730 days for decedents and for the same calendar days for survivors. Conditional logistic regression analyses were performed to test the association of LTC use with decedent status and year. Results: The difference in LTC use between decedents and survivors was smallest among the oldest (OR 9.91 among youngest, 4.96 among oldest). The difference widened from 2000 to 2011 (OR of interaction of LTC use and year increased): use increased or held steady among decedents, but decreased among survivors. Conclusions: The use of LTC became increasingly concentrated in the last years of life during the study period. The use of LTC is also common among the oldest survivors. As more people live to very old age, the demand for LTC will increase.

Long-term care use among old people in their last 2 years of life: variations across Finland.

Variations across Finland in the use of six different long-term care (LTC) services among old people in their last 2 years of life, and the effects of characteristics of municipalities on the variations were studied. We studied variations in the use of residential home, sheltered housing, regular home care and inpatient care in health centre wards by using national registers. We studied how the use of LTC was associated with characteristics of the individuals and in particular characteristics of the municipalities in which they lived. Analyses were conducted with multilevel binary logistic regression. Data included all individuals (34,753) who died in the year 2008 at the age of 70 or over. Of those, 58.3% used some kind of LTC during their last 2 years of life. We found considerable variations between municipalities in the use of different kinds of LTC. A portion of the variation was explained by municipality characteristics. The size and location of the municipality had the strongest association with the use of different kinds of LTC. The economic status of the municipality and morbidity at the population level were poorly associated with LTC use, whereas old-age dependency showed no association. When individual-level characteristics were added to the models, these associations did not alter. Results indicated that the delivery system characteristics had an important effect on the use of LTC services. The considerable variation in LTC services also poses questions with respect to equity in access and to quality of LTC across the country.

Burdensome transitions at the end of life among long-term care residents with dementia.

OBJECTIVES: The purpose of the study was to examine the frequency of burdensome care transitions at the end of life, the difference between different types of residential care facilities, and the changes occurring between 2002 and 2008. DESIGN: A nationwide, register-based retrospective study. SETTING: Residential care facilities offering long-term care, including traditional nursing homes, sheltered housing with 24-hour assistance, and long-term care facilities specialized in care for people with dementia. STUDY GROUP: All people in Finland who died at the age of 70 or older, had dementia, and were in residential care during their last months of life. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Three types of potentially burdensome care transition: (1) any transition to another care facility in the last 3 days of life; (2) a lack of continuity with respect to a residential care facility before and after hospitalization in the last 90 days of life; (3) multiple hospitalizations (more than 2) in the last 90 days of life. The 3 types were studied separately and as a whole. RESULTS: One-tenth (9.5%) had burdensome care transitions. Multiple hospitalizations in the last 90 days were the most frequent, followed by any transitions in the last 3 days of life. The frequency varied between residents who lived in different baseline care facilities being higher in sheltered housing and long-term specialist care for people with dementia than in traditional nursing homes. During the study years, the number of transitions fluctuated but showed a slight decrease since 2005. CONCLUSIONS: The ongoing change in long-term care from institutional care to housing services causes major challenges to the continuity of end-of-life care. To guarantee good quality during the last days of life for people with dementia, the underlying reasons behind transitions at the end of life should be investigated more thoroughly.

Overlaps and accumulation in the use of rehabilitation services.

The Finnish rehabilitation system is considered fragmented and multisectoral, and thus it may produce 'multiclients' receiving inefficient and overlapping services. This paper addresses the overlaps and accumulation in the delivery of rehabilitation services in Finnish rehabilitation subsystems. Data were drawn from several administrative registers on the use of rehabilitation services during the years 2004 and 2005 in one hospital district area in Midwest Finland. To analyze the differences in use of rehabilitation services between the patient groups, cross-tabulations, logistic and linear regressions were used. Altogether 15 189 persons in the study area used rehabilitation services during 2004 and 2005; 9% of rehabilitees used services provided by two or more subsystems. These multiclients used 25% of all rehabilitation services. Men of working ages and living in larger municipalities were more likely to be multiclients. The proportion of multiclients among all rehabilitees was smaller than expected. However, these multiclients used a larger proportion of rehabilitation services. In the case of multiclients, the problems most likely occur in the rehabilitation process, as the services provided by different subsystems most probably are not linked together. To improve the performance of the rehabilitation system, more attention should be paid to integrating the subsystems.

Use and distribution of rehabilitation services: a register linkage study in one hospital district area in Finland.

This study focuses on a large set of rehabilitation services used between 2004 and 2005 in one hospital district area in Finland. The rehabilitation system consists of several subsystems. This complex system is suggested to produce arbitrary rehabilitation services. Despite the criticisms against the system during decades, no attempts have been made to study the performance of the system as a whole. Register data from several subsystems were linked to study the use and characteristics of rehabilitation services and users. Data consisted of 10 153 persons. We analysed differences in rehabilitation service use between age and sex groups and municipalities. Totally, 5.4% of the population used rehabilitation services in the studied 2 years. Medical rehabilitation was the most common type, users' mean age was 52.6 years, and 52.2% were women. Remarkable differences were detected between municipalities in usage rates in all rehabilitation types. The size of the population in home municipality had a varying relation to utilization in different rehabilitation types. We found differences in the service use within age groups, sex or home municipality. This study cannot rule out the possibility that these differences indicated inequitable distribution of services or whether they are explained by different needs.