Histopatological parameters of the spinal cord in different phases of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. A mouse model of multiple sclerosis examined by classical stainings combined with immunohistochemistry.

Multiple sclerosis (MS) and its animal model, experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) are characterized by three main histopathological parameters: inflammation, demyelination and axonal damage. In this study, these parameters were assessed in spinal cords of mice in the successive phases of EAE by quantitative histology and immunohistochemistry. The number of inflammatory lesions, the intensity of inflammation and expression of CD45 corresponded with the severity of clinical symptoms: they increased from the onset phase to the peak phase of the disease and subsided in the chronic phase. Demyelination increased in the peak phase and did not change in the chronic phase of EAE, although axonal damage gradually increased from the onset phase to the chronic phase, suggesting compensatory hypermyelination in that phase. The markers of myelin and axonal injury: myelin basic protein (MBP) and beta amyloid precursor protein (ß-APP) showed changes (decrease and increase, respectively) of expression parallel to changes in demyelination and axonal damage. Results of this study indicate that although inflammation intensity subsides in the chronic phase of EAE, the neurodestructive processes: demyelination and axonal damage continue in that phase.

Changes in stiffness of the optic nerve and involvement of neurofilament light chains in the course of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis, an animal model of multiple sclerosis.

Multiple sclerosis and its animal model, experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), are often accompanied by optic neuritis associated with neurofilament disruption. In this study, the stiffness of the optic nerve was investigated by atomic force microscopy (AFM) in mice with induced EAE in the successive phases of the disease: onset, peak, and chronic. AFM results were compared with the intensity of the main pathological processes in the optic nerve: inflammation, demyelination, and axonal loss, as well as with the density of astrocytes, assessed by quantitative histology and immunohistochemistry. Optic nerve tissue and serum levels of neurofilament light chain protein (NEFL) were also examined by immunostaining and ELISA, respectively. The stiffness of the optic nerve in EAE mice was lower than that in control and naïve animals. It increased in the onset and peak phases and sharply decreased in the chronic phase. Serum NEFL level showed similar dynamics, while tissue NEFL level decreased in the onset and peak phases, indicating a leak of NEFL from the optic nerve to body fluids. Inflammation and demyelination gradually increased to reach the maximum in the peak phase of EAE, and inflammation slightly declined in the chronic phase, while demyelination did not. The axonal loss also gradually increased and had the highest level in the chronic phase. Among these processes, demyelination and especially axonal loss most effectively decrease the stiffness of the optic nerve. NEFL level in serum can be regarded as an early indicator of EAE, as it rapidly grows in the onset phase of the disease.

Biomechanical changes in the liver tissue induced by a mouse model of multiple sclerosis (EAE) and the effect of anti-VLA-4 mAb treatment.

Experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) is a mouse model of demyelinating diseases, such as multiple sclerosis (MS). MS can be accompanied by autoimmune hepatitis. In this study, nanomechanical, biorheological and histological examinations were carried out by atomic force microscopy (AFM), rheology, and immunofluorescence microscopy to investigate changes in the liver tissue of EAE mice and the effect of natalizumab, a monoclonal antibody against α4-integrin (VLA-4) cell adhesion molecule, used in MS therapy. Liver samples collected from EAE mice in three successive phases of the disease showed inflammatory changes manifested by leukocyte infiltrations and elevated levels of proinflammatory cytokine IL-1ß. Liver stiffness and viscoelasticity increased in the onset phase of EAE, decreased in the peak phase and increased again in the chronic phase to reach the highest values. These changes were not associated with inflammation parameters which increased in the peak phase and decreased to the lowest values in the chronic phase. Moreover, anti-VLA treatment, which reduced the inflammation parameters, had an ambiguous effect on stiffness and viscoelasticity: it increased them in the peak phase but decreased in the chronic phase. The observed discrepancies can result from a complex network of interactions between inflammation and fibrosis, as well as between liver cells and the extracellular matrix influencing the biomechanical properties of the liver tissue.

Effect of natalizumab treatment on metalloproteinases and their inhibitors in a mouse model of multiple sclerosis.

Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) regulated by their tissue inhibitors (TIMPs) play a significant role in the pathogenesis of multiple sclerosis (MS) and its mouse model, experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), as they degrade extracellular matrix including vascular basal laminae and by damaging blood-brain barrier (BBB) facilitate transmigration of immune cells into the central nervous system. MMPs are also involved in destruction of myelin sheaths, leading to axonal and neuronal loss. The aim of the present study was to assess whether natalizumab, a transmigration-inhibiting monoclonal antibody against α4ß1 integrin, influences expression of MMPs and TIMPs in the central nervous system of mice with EAE. MMP-2 and MMP-9, their respective inhibitors TIMP-2 and TIMP-1 and laminin were assessed by quantitative immunohistochemistry in the spinal cord cryosections of C57BL/6 mice with EAE in the successive phases of the disease (onset, peak and chronic). The percentage of immunopositive areas were calculated in sections encompassing the whole spinal cord cross-sectional area occupied by the gray and white matter. Results obtained in animals administered with 5 mg/kg natalizumab were compared with those collected from control mice receiving 5 mg/kg IgG. Both studied MMPs and both TIMPs were upregulated in control EAE mice. Natalizumab treatment significantly reduced expression of MMPs and increased expression of TIMPs in the peak and chronic phases of the disease. This effect was accompanied by inhibition of laminin degradation in the vascular basal laminae and reduction of inflammatory infiltration. Results of this study demonstrate that in addition to its well known anti-integrin activity counteracting transmigration of immune cells into the central nervous system, natalizumab strengthens this effect by its probably indirect influence on MMPs and TIMPs leading to protection of blood-brain barrier integrity.

Changes in spinal cord stiffness in the course of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis, a mouse model of multiple sclerosis.

Experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) is a commonly used mouse model of multiple sclerosis, a chronic inflammatory disease of the central nervous system (CNS) characterized by demyelination leading to brain and spinal cord malfunctions. We postulate that not only biological but also biomechanical properties play an important role in impairements of CNS function. Atomic force microscopy (AFM) was applied to investigate mechanical properties of spinal cords collected from EAE mice in preonset, onset, peak, and chronic disease phases. Biomechanical changes were compared with histopathological alterations observed in the successive phases. The deformability of gray matter did not change, while rigidity of white matter increased during the onset phase, remained at the same level in the peak phase and decreased in the chronic phase. Inflammatory infiltration and laminin content accompanied the tissue rigidity increase, whereas demyelination and axonal damage showed an opposite effect. The increase in white matter rigidity can be regarded as an early signature of EAE.

Vasodilatory effect and endothelial integrity in papaverine- and milrinone-treated human radial arteries.

Prevention of the vasospasm is an important aspect of coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG) with the use of radial artery (RA) as the conduit. We compared the effect of two phosphodiesterase inhibitors papaverine and milrinone on vasodilation and endothelial integrity of human RA segments harvested from 20 CABG patients. Vasodilatory effect of the drugs were assessed by organ bath technique in RA rings precontracted with KCl and phenylephrine. Endothelial integrity was evaluated by CD34 immunofluorescence in frozen sections. Vasorelaxation induced by papaverine was significantly greater as compared to that induced by milrinone (90.47% ± 10.16% vs. 78.98% ± 19.56%, p<0.05). Similarly, pretreament with papaverine more strongly inhibited the contractile response of RA rings to KCl (6.0 ± 8.0 mN vs. 26.7 ± 21.5 mN, p<0.001). Papaverine was also superior to milrinone in the preservation of endothelial integrity (75.3% ± 12.9% vs. 51.8% ± 18.0%, p<0.02). In conclusion, papaverine seems to be more suitable than milrinone for prevention of vasospasm in radial artery conduits used for CABG.

Effect of nebivolol treatment on atherosclerotic plaque components in apoE-knockout mice.

Nebivolol, a third generation beta1-blocker was previously found to reduce the size of atherosclerotic lesions. The aim of this study was to assess the effect of orally administered nevibolol on the components of the atherosclerotic plaque in apoE-deficient mice. The quantitative evaluation of cross-sectioned plaques stained by histological and immunohistochemical techniques revealed that treatment with nebivolol (2.0 µol per kg b.w.) for 4 months caused a decrease in the necrotic core area (by 46%, p=0.03), density of CD68+ macrophages (by 41%, p=0.008) and CD3+ lymphocytes (by 16%, p=0.03), collagen content (by 49%, p=0.008) and the activity area of metalloproteinases (by 48%, p=0.008), as well as an increase in the smooth muscle content of the fibromuscular cap (by 46%, p=0.008). These effects suggest that nebivolol suppresses the inflammatory/immune processes in the plaque and enhances its stability.

Angiotensin-(1-7) receptor Mas agonist ameliorates progress of atherosclerosis in apoE-knockout mice.

Our interest focused on an open question whether AT-(1-7), nonpeptide receptor agonist: AVE 0991, is able to ameliorate atherosclerosis. We used an apolipoprotein E (apoE) - knockout mice model of atherosclerosis. Experimental groups received the same diet as control, mixed with: AVE 0991 at a dose of 0.58 µmol/kg b.w./day, perindopril at a dose of 0.4 mg/kg b.w./day or with tiorphan at a dose of 2.5 mg/kg b.w./day. A-779 [(D-alanine)-angiotensin (1-7)] was given at a dose of 3.3 mg/kg b.w., 3 times a week i.p. Measured by "en face" method, the percentage of occupied by Sudan IV-stained surfaces were as follows: 14.2±1.9 % in control group, whereas in AVE 0991-treated as well as in perindopril-treated groups percentages were statistically significantly lower. In tiorphan group there was no change comparing to control group, whereas in A-779 group percentage was statistically significantly higher. "Cross-section" of aortic roots revealed also the difference in atherosclerotic lesions. The mean surfaces, occupied by oil red O-stained changes were: 91.213±8.123 µm(2) in control group, while in AVE 0991-treated as well as in perindopril-treated groups lesions were statistically significantly lower. In tiorphan group there was no change; however, in A-779 group lesions were statistically significantly higher. Measured by real time RT-PCR relative p22phox (submit of NADPH oxidase) expression was significantly decreased in AVE 0991-treated mice. As revealed by flow cytometry, the expression of co-stimulatory molecules: CD86, CD80 and CD40 on both dendritic cells (CD11c+) and macrophages (F4/80+) was reduced in AVE 0991-treated group, which correlated with decreased expression of CD69 activation marker on CD4+T cells. In our report we showed the beneficial effect of AVE 0991 on atherogenesis in gene-targeted mice.

The effect of doxycycline on atherogenesis in apoE-knockout mice.

Doxycycline at subantimicrobial doses inhibits matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) activity, and is the only MMP inhibitor which is widely available in clinical practice. The aim of the study was to reveal whether non-specific MMPs inhibition by tetracycline could ameliorate development of atherosclerosis in apolipoprotein E (apoE)-knockout mice. Doxycycline (1.5 mg/ kg b.w./day) administered orally attenuated atherogenesis, measured both by "en face" method (10.25±1.7% vs. 15.7±2.0%, p<0.05) and "cross-section" method (66,254±7,468 µm(2) vs. 90,687±8,521 µm(2), p<0.05). In-situ zymography showed decrease of the extent of non-specific gelatinase activity in doxycycline-treated mice This is the first report to date describing the effect of doxycycline on atherogenesis in apoE-targeted mice.

AVE 0991-angiotensin-(1-7) receptor agonist, inhibits atherogenesis in apoE-knockout mice.

Recent evidence shows that the renin-angiotensin system is a crucial player in atherosclerotic processes. It was also proved that Ang II promotes atherogenesis. Angiotensin-(1-7) [Ang-(1-7)] opposites Ang II action. Therefore, we would like to find out whether Ang-(1-7) receptor agonist: AVE 0991, could ameliorate atherosclerosis progression in an experimental model of atherosclerosis: apolipoprotein E (apoE) - knockout mice. AVE 0991 inhibited atherogenesis, measured both by "en face" method (7.63+/-1.6% vs. 14.6+/-2.1%) and "cross-section" method (47 235+/-7 546 microm(2) vs. 91 416+/-8 357 microm(2)). This is the first report showing the effect of AVE 0991 on atherogenesis in gene-targeted mice.

The effect of nebivolol on atherogenesis in apoE-knockout mice.

Nebivolol is a novel beta1-blocker with a nitric oxide (NO)--potentiating, vasodilatory effect that is unique among beta-blockers. It was already shown that nebivolol ameliorates atherosclerosis in cholesterol-fed rabbits. We, therefore, wanted to investigate whether this is the case in the fine experimental model of atherosclerosis: apolipoprotein E (apoE)-knockout mice. Nebivolol attenuated atherogenesis, measured both by "en face" method (9.23+/-1.8% vs. 14.6+/-2.1%) and "cross-section" method (63125+/-8455 microm(2) vs. 91416+/-8357 m(2)). This is the first report showing the effect of nebivolol on atherogenesis in gene-targeted mice.

Rheological properties of erythrocytes in patients with high risk of cardiovascular disease.

Rheological properties of erythrocytes from patients with high risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD) were analyzed in relation to individual patient risk factors as well as to the medication. Additionally, comparative statistical analysis was performed considering plasma concentration of the selected mediators of vascular endothelium: 6-keto-prostaglandin F(1alpha) (PGF(1alpha)), sVCAM-1 and E-selectin adhesion molecules and interleukin-6 (IL-6). It was found that antihypertensive therapy with angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor (ACEI) is accompanied by improvement of RBC rheology: the increase of deformability and the decrease of aggregability. This improvement is probably mediated by endothelial prostacyclin and nitric oxide which are generated by ACEI. A correlation was observed between RBC deformability/aggregability and the patient's hematocrit level, what implicates that the hematocrit level should be explicitly taken into consideration when investigating rheological properties of erythrocytes. A strong relationship was also found between the plasma concentration of sVCAM-1 and patient's age.