ABSTRACT
Parkinson's disease (PD), the second most common neurodegenerative disorder, is characterized by neuroinflammation, formation of Lewy bodies, and progressive loss of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra of the brain. In this review, we summarize evidence obtained by animal studies demonstrating neuroinflammation as one of the central pathogenetic mechanisms of PD. We also focus on the protein factors that initiate the development of PD and other neurodegenerative diseases. Our targeted literature search identified 40 pre-clinical in vivo and in vitro studies written in English. Nuclear factor kappa B (NF-kB) pathway is demonstrated as a common mechanism engaged by neurotoxins such as 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP) and 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA), as well as the bacterial lipopolysaccharide (LPS). The α-synuclein protein, which plays a prominent role in PD neuropathology, may also contribute to neuroinflammation by activating mast cells. Meanwhile, 6-OHDA models of PD identify microsomal prostaglandin E synthase-1 (mPGES-1) as one of the contributors to neuroinflammatory processes in this model. Immune responses are used by the central nervous system to fight and remove pathogens; however, hyperactivated and prolonged immune responses can lead to a harmful neuroinflammatory state, which is one of the key mechanisms in the pathogenesis of PD.
ABSTRACT
Nowadays, electrocardiogram (ECG) changes are one of the valuable diagnostic clues for recognizing abnormalities. Potassium is one of the essential electrolytes in cardiac cells, and its variations affect ECG. Potassium disorders, including hyperkalemia and hypokalemia in authoritarian states, may lead to heart dysfunctions and could be life-threatening, and urgent interventions are needed in this conditions. The current review summarizes studies to elucidate the correlation between potassium disorders and ECG demonstrations. In this review, we summarized ECG changes related to hyperkalemia and interventions. Moreover; animal studies on ECG changes related to hyper- and hypokalemia are provided. The studies showed peaked T wave, as well as expanded QRS complex and low P amplitude, are important changes that can guide us to immediate diagnosis. ECG Changes in severe hyperkalemia that can endanger patients' lives are noteworthy. Manifestations change in hyperkalemia, for correct diagnosis clinical history of the patients is essential.
