ABSTRACT
Huntington's disease (HD) is a dominantly inherited neurodegenerative disorder caused by a CAG trinucleotide expansion in the huntingtin gene (HTT), which codes for the pathologic mutant HTT (mHTT) protein. Since normal HTT is thought to be important for brain function, we engineered zinc finger protein transcription factors (ZFP-TFs) to target the pathogenic CAG repeat and selectively lower mHTT as a therapeutic strategy. Using patient-derived fibroblasts and neurons, we demonstrate that ZFP-TFs selectively repress >99% of HD-causing alleles over a wide dose range while preserving expression of >86% of normal alleles. Other CAG-containing genes are minimally affected, and virally delivered ZFP-TFs are active and well tolerated in HD neurons beyond 100 days in culture and for at least nine months in the mouse brain. Using three HD mouse models, we demonstrate improvements in a range of molecular, histopathological, electrophysiological and functional endpoints. Our findings support the continued development of an allele-selective ZFP-TF for the treatment of HD.
Subject(s)
Alleles , Huntingtin Protein/genetics , Huntington Disease/therapy , Mutation , Transcription, Genetic , Zinc Fingers , Animals , Cells, Cultured , Disease Models, Animal , Female , Humans , Huntington Disease/genetics , Male , Mice , Mice, Inbred C57BL , Mice, Inbred CBA , Neuroprotection , Trinucleotide RepeatsABSTRACT
FGF signaling is essential for mammary gland development, yet the mechanisms by which different members of the FGF family control stem cell function and epithelial morphogenesis in this tissue are not well understood. Here, we have examined the requirement of Fgfr2 in mouse mammary gland morphogenesis using a postnatal organ regeneration model. We found that tissue regeneration from basal stem cells is a multistep event, including luminal differentiation and subsequent epithelial branching morphogenesis. Basal cells lacking Fgfr2 did not generate an epithelial network owing to a failure in luminal differentiation. Moreover, Fgfr2 null epithelium was unable to undergo ductal branch initiation and elongation due to a deficiency in directional migration. We identified FGF10 and FGF2 as stromal ligands that control distinct aspects of mammary ductal branching. FGF10 regulates branch initiation, which depends on directional epithelial migration. By contrast, FGF2 controls ductal elongation, requiring cell proliferation and epithelial expansion. Together, our data highlight a pleiotropic role of Fgfr2 in stem cell differentiation and branch initiation, and reveal that different FGF ligands regulate distinct aspects of epithelial behavior.
Subject(s)
Epithelium/growth & development , Fibroblast Growth Factor 10/metabolism , Fibroblast Growth Factor 2/metabolism , Mammary Glands, Animal/cytology , Mammary Glands, Animal/metabolism , Morphogenesis , Animals , Animals, Newborn , Cell Death/drug effects , Cell Differentiation/drug effects , Cell Differentiation/genetics , Cell Movement/drug effects , Cell Movement/genetics , Cell Polarity/drug effects , Cell Polarity/genetics , Cell Proliferation/drug effects , Epithelial Cells/cytology , Epithelial Cells/drug effects , Epithelial Cells/enzymology , Epithelium/drug effects , Epithelium/metabolism , Female , Fibroblast Growth Factor 10/genetics , Fibroblast Growth Factor 10/pharmacology , Gene Expression Regulation, Developmental/drug effects , Ligands , Mammary Glands, Animal/growth & development , Matrix Metalloproteinases/metabolism , Mice , Mice, Nude , Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase Kinases/metabolism , Morphogenesis/drug effects , Morphogenesis/genetics , Phosphatidylinositol 3-Kinases/metabolism , Receptor, Fibroblast Growth Factor, Type 2/deficiency , Receptor, Fibroblast Growth Factor, Type 2/metabolism , Regeneration/drug effects , Regeneration/genetics , Signal Transduction/drug effects , Signal Transduction/genetics , Stem Cells/cytology , Stem Cells/drug effects , Stem Cells/metabolism , Stromal Cells/cytology , Stromal Cells/drug effects , Stromal Cells/metabolismABSTRACT
Fibroblast growth factor (FGF) signaling is essential for vertebrate organogenesis, including mammary gland development. The mechanism whereby FGF signaling is regulated in the mammary gland, however, has remained unknown. Using a combination of mouse genetics and 3D ex vivo models, we tested the hypothesis that Spry2 gene, which encodes an inhibitor of signaling via receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs) in certain contexts, regulates FGF signaling during mammary branching. We found that Spry2 is expressed at various stages of the developing mammary gland. Targeted removal of Spry2 function from mammary epithelium leads to accelerated epithelial invasion. Spry2 is up-regulated by FGF signaling activities and its loss sensitizes mammary epithelium to FGF stimulation, as indicated by increased expression of FGF target genes and epithelia invasion. By contrast, Spry2 gain-of-function in the mammary epithelium results in reduced FGF signaling, epithelial invasion, and stunted branching. Furthermore, reduction of Spry2 expression is correlated with tumor progression in the MMTV-PyMT mouse model. Together, the data show that FGF signaling modulation by Spry2 is essential for epithelial morphogenesis in the mammary gland and it functions to protect the epithelium against tumorigenesis.
Subject(s)
Epithelium/growth & development , Epithelium/metabolism , Fibroblast Growth Factors/metabolism , Mammary Glands, Animal/growth & development , Mammary Glands, Animal/metabolism , Morphogenesis , Signal Transduction , Animals , Crosses, Genetic , Disease Models, Animal , Female , Heterozygote , Humans , Integrases/metabolism , Intracellular Signaling Peptides and Proteins/deficiency , Intracellular Signaling Peptides and Proteins/metabolism , Male , Mammary Tumor Virus, Mouse/metabolism , Membrane Proteins/deficiency , Membrane Proteins/metabolism , Mice , Protein Serine-Threonine KinasesABSTRACT
Nucleases that cleave unique genomic sequences in living cells can be used for targeted gene editing and mutagenesis. Here we develop a strategy for generating such reagents based on transcription activator-like effector (TALE) proteins from Xanthomonas. We identify TALE truncation variants that efficiently cleave DNA when linked to the catalytic domain of FokI and use these nucleases to generate discrete edits or small deletions within endogenous human NTF3 and CCR5 genes at efficiencies of up to 25%. We further show that designed TALEs can regulate endogenous mammalian genes. These studies demonstrate the effective application of designed TALE transcription factors and nucleases for the targeted regulation and modification of endogenous genes.
