Can Happiness and Sadness Overcome Organ Donation Barriers Following Exposure to Radio Ads?

Concerns related to bodily integrity, medical mistrust, superstition, and disgust with respect to organ transplantation remain commonly cited barriers among African American, Caucasian, and Hispanic non-donors. The current study examined two narrative strategies for mitigating these barriers by eliciting feelings of happiness or sadness. African American, Caucasian, and Hispanic non-donors (N = 576) were randomly assigned to a radio ad that communicated either a recipient narrative or a waiting list narrative. As expected, the recipient narrative elicited greater feelings of happiness whereas the waiting list narrative aroused greater feelings of sadness. Moderated mediation analyses revealed models in which happiness, not sadness, was the mediator, such that the narrative frame was associated with ad persuasiveness. Additionally, only medical mistrust interacted with happiness to predict ad persuasiveness The results are discussed with an emphasis on message design strategies to employ among reluctant adult African American, Caucasian, and Hispanic potential donors.

An Investigation into the Portrayal of Organ Donation on Grey's Anatomy Seasons 1 Through 15.

The current project sought to extend prior research examining organ donation portrayals on Grey's Anatomy by examining the first fifteen seasons. Guided by the health belief model, content analysis revealed more attention was given to benefits of donation than barriers. Contrary to previous research, more attention was given to refuting rather than promoting commonly cited myths. The results also address attention to the health threat as well as Grey's Anatomy's representation of self-efficacy in registering to be an organ donor. Finally, proportion tests revealed significant differences between the types of organs transplanted on Grey's Anatomy compared to organs transplanted in the United States. The results are discussed with an emphasis on portrayal trends throughout Season 1 through 15 as well as the theoretical and practical implications of our findings.

An evaluation of the license to save lives program to promote organ, eye, and tissue donation among teenagers.

As the number of designated organ donors continues to lag behind the number of waiting list patients, teenagers remain a promising demographic of potential organ donors. The current study enlisted Michigan and Ohio driver education students to participate in an online digital learning intervention, License to Save Lives (LTSL). Students were randomly assigned to either an interactive or noninteractive LTSL intervention. Across both states, the pretest-posttest design revealed greater knowledge among students following exposure to either the interactive or noninteractive LTSL program. No attitudinal or behavioral differences emerged between the interactive and noninteractive conditions. Michigan (39.82%) and Ohio (58.10%) students registered to be organ donors at a respectable rate. The results are discussed with an emphasis on feasibility and sustainability as well as the promise for digital games to promote organ donation knowledge, attitude, and registration among teenagers.

"Saving Students' Lives": Instructor Sharing of Run-Hide-Fight® Emergency Preparedness Materials.

When emergency situations occur, it is essential that individuals can effectively respond to keep themselves and others safe. One attempt at increasing individuals' readiness for an emergency is the Run-Hide-Fight® campaign, which has been adopted by several higher education institutions in the United States. This study explores the dissemination of this campaign by instructors at a large Midwestern university in the United States. We generally find support for the reasoned action perspective, with attitudes, norms, and perceived behavioral control influencing intentions to share the emergency preparedness video with students. Through open-ended responses provided by the instructors, we identify four main themes surrounding video dissemination. First, most instructors felt comfortable sharing the video, believing it would be useful in preparing students for an emergency. Second, some instructors voiced concerns about the negative emotional effects the video may have on students. Third, instructors generally appreciated the brief and effective delivery of the message, though some were concerned about dramatizing emergencies. Finally, instructors suggested ways of improving the video, such as including more specific guidance on how to behave in an emergency situation. Practically, these findings suggest that universities should consider their emergency preparedness information dissemination strategy to maximize credibility, minimize message fatigue, and reach more students. Theoretically, this study affirms the tenets of reasoned action and suggests alternative theoretical approaches for future scholarship.

A Test of Autonomy Restoration Postscripts to Mitigate Psychological Reactance to an Opt-Out Organ Donor Registry in the United States.

The organ shortage continues to present problems around the world including the United States. In response, some countries have switched from an opt-in organ donor registry to an opt-out registry. The United States currently utilizes an opt-in registry where an individual is not considered an organ donor until they register their intentions. In the current study, U.S. adults were randomly assigned to a 2 (message valence: promotional, refutational) x 2 (autonomy restoration postscript: present, not present) x 2 (social proof: high likes, low likes) posttest only control group design evaluating social media message regarding an opt-out organ donor registry for implementation in the U.S. Results revealed an interaction between message valence and autonomy on freedom threat perceptions toward the message. Consistent with psychological reactance theory, freedom threat perceptions were positively associated with reactance, which in turn was positively associated with an intention to sign a petition and call a representative to voice disapproval of the opt-out organ donor registry. The discussion is focused on pragmatic recommendations for organ donor practitioners and advocates as well as the theoretical contributions to reactance theory.

Raising Concussion Awareness among Amateur Athletes: An Examination of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's (CDC) Heads Up Campaign.

Attention to concussion prevention and management has grown in recent years due to the potentially long-term, debilitating effects a head injury can have on an individual. Although multiple campaigns have been designed to target this issue, there remains a need to evaluate the persuasive principles used to advocate for safety measures and protocols, specifically within youth sports. With this in mind, we applied the health belief model (HBM) in our content analysis of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's (CDC) Heads Up concussion awareness campaign. Campaign videos (N = 35) were coded for threat severity, threat susceptibility, benefits, barriers, self-efficacy, and cues to action. The majority of videos communicated the seriousness of concussions and attempts to communicate concussion susceptibility were driven by personal stories, rather than facts and statistics demonstrating concussion prevalence. Less than half of the videos communicated the benefits of following concussion protocols and only a third of the messages described barriers to following recommended protocols. The majority of videos aimed to elevate self-efficacy among athletes and parents, but not coaches, by focusing on identifying symptoms and concussion avoidance. The implications for concussion prevention and management among athletes, parents, and coaches are discussed.

A Reasoned Action Approach to Limiting Excessive Social Media Usage Among Adults.

The literature on social media suggests a link between use and negative mental health consequences. Numerous theoretical perspectives have attempted to explain the underlying mechanisms for this relationship but are lacking a clear explanation for why some individuals may be negatively impacted by their social media use. Despite a plethora of research on this relationship, minimal research has examined the act of limiting social media use as a promotional behavior. This study takes a fresh approach by investigating attitudinal components that predict intentions to limit social media use via the reasoned action approach. US adults (N = 298) participated in an online survey on excessive social media use. Attitudes, perceived norms, and perceived behavioral control were significant predictors of intentions to limit social media use. In addition, perceived behavioral control was hypothesized to moderate both the attitude to intention and norm to intention relationships in that these associations would be stronger for those with higher control beliefs. Results showed that strong control beliefs strengthened the attitudes to intentions relationship but weakened the norm to intention relationship. Future practical and research directions are discussed to promote limiting social media use and further investigate the negative mental health outcomes of excessive social media.

Psychological Reactance Theory and COVID-19 Vaccine Mandates: The Roles of Threat Magnitude and Direction of Threat.

The current study examines psychological reactance theory (PRT), focusing on the role of threat directness and threat magnitude in the context of a COVID-19 vaccine mandate. Students on two college campuses in the United States (N = 374) were informed that their university or the other university (i.e., threat directness manipulation) was considering a vaccinate mandate for the following semester that would or would not include sanctions for noncompliance (i.e., threat magnitude manipulation). Participants experienced significantly greater freedom threat perceptions when the mandate included sanctions compared to when it did not, but freedom threat perception did not differ when the mandate was on their own campus as to the other campus. An interaction effect was also observed in which perceived freedom threat and reactance was greatest among participants receiving an indirect (as opposed to direct) threat with sanctions. Findings are discussed with an emphasis on the theoretical contribution to PRT along with the practical implications for vaccine mandates.

State mask mandates and psychological reactance theory: The role of political partisanship and COVID-19 risk in mask adoption and resistance.

RATIONALE: Psychological reactance theory was applied to examine the implications of state-level mask mandates in the United States during the COVID-19 pandemic. We evaluated the role of political partisanship and COVID-19 risk on changes in self-reported mask wearing before and after the imposition and removal of state mask mandates. METHOD: Secondary data from several sources were aggregated about self-reported mask wearing behavior, state mandates, COVID-19 infection rates, and state-level political partisanship. Difference-in-differences tests were performed using logistic regression to evaluate whether change in mask wearing behavior following the imposition or removal of a mandate was greater in states based on state-level political partisanship and COVID-19 infection rates. RESULTS: Although mask adoption generally increased following mandates, the amount of increase was smaller in more Republican states compared to more Democratic states. Mask wearing generally decreased following the removal of mandates, with greater decreases when COVID-19 infection rates were lower. CONCLUSION: The results collectively offer insights about the nuanced role of contextual factors in the adoption and resistance to masks following state mask mandates. Partisanship was important in responses to the imposition of state mask mandates and COVID-19 risk played a critical role in responses to mandate removal.

Message Fatigue and Resistance to Anti-Binge Drinking Messages: Examining the Mediating Roles of Inattention and Reactance.

OBJECTIVE: The current study examined message fatigue as a theoretical explanation for college students' resistance to anti-binge drinking messaging. Specifically, inattention and psychological reactance were examined as mediators bridging the message fatigue and perceived message effectiveness relationship. METHOD: University students (N = 783, 60% female) were recruited by the university's SONA sampling system to participate in an online Qualtrics survey where they read a message discouraging binge drinking. RESULTS: In line with our predictions, structural equation modeling revealed that message fatigue was positively associated with both inattention and reactance (as mediated by freedom threat). In turn, inattention, but not reactance, was negatively associated with perceived message effectiveness. CONCLUSIONS: The current findings suggest that there may be deleterious consequences of message fatigue when discouraging binge drinking. The current results also highlight the importance of pilot testing anti-binge drinking messages for message fatigue during formative research to avoid triggering maladaptive outcomes.

An examination of teenagers' beliefs toward organ donor registration.

Teenagers represent a promising target population for organ donor registration efforts, as in the US teenagers age 15-17 may register their intent for organ donation, which later translates to consent at age 18. However, teenagers constitute a relatively understudied population in the organ donation literature. A sample of teenagers (N = 466) ranging in age from 13 to 19 was recruited from driver's education schools in Ohio and Michigan in order to learn more about their perceived reasons for and against registering as an organ donor. A coding scheme was developed, and responses were coded by two trained coders. In line with previous work in adult samples, our results revealed the three most common reasons for registering were prosocial benefits, rational arguments, and personal experience. In contrast to previous work among adults, the two most common reasons for not registering were bodily integrity and religious reasons. Several novel beliefs among teenagers that were both supportive and non-supportive of organ donor registration were identified. Findings from the current study are discussed with an emphasis on implications for practitioners working to promote organ donor registration among teenage audiences.

What's at Stake: Evaluating a Run-Hide-Fight® Intervention Video through the Lens of Vested Interest Theory.

The Department of Homeland Security and the Federal Bureau of Investigation have encouraged colleges and universities to create emergency preparedness interventions that prepare students, faculty, and staff for any conceivable campus crisis. In this investigation, we tested the efficacy of a professionally produced Run-Hide-Fight® video to accomplish such a goal with a convenience sample of college students. Drawing on Vested Interest Theory (VIT) to guide our evaluation, we observed significant gains in stake, salience, and self-efficacy for students exposed to the emergency preparedness video compared to those not exposed to the video. We find evidence not only for short-term gains immediately after message exposure but also persisting effects two weeks after exposure. In addition, greater perceptions of stake and salience in response to the video predicted more favorable attitudes toward emergency preparedness over time. These findings demonstrate the potential for brief messages shown in university classrooms to encourage students to feel vested in emergency preparedness on campus. They also shed light on promising messaging strategies to foster favorable attitudes toward emergency preparedness.

Illinois Department of Motor Vehicle Customers' Reasons for (Not) Registering as an Organ Donor.

CONTEXT: Organ donation campaigns are maximized when promotional messages address salient issues among the intended audience. A diverse sample (N = 1573) was recruited to identify the reasons for (not) registering as an organ donor. OBJECTIVE: Relying on an established coding scheme, an updated explanation for why individuals register (or not) as organ donors is provided. Moreover, registration trends with respect to race, biological sex, and age is presented. METHOD: Participants exiting Department of Motor Vehicle offices (N = 12) were surveyed to understand their reasons for registering and not registering as organ donors. RESULTS: Benefits of donation followed by prior registration, rational arguments, and personal experiences represented nearly 90% of the coded responses for registering. Conversely, negative beliefs, decisional uncertainty, perceived disqualification, no reason, general fear/disgust, and lack of opportunity constituted nearly 90% of the coded responses for not registering as an organ donor. Whites and Latinx individuals were more likely to register as organ donors compared to African Americans. Participants in the lower (18-24) and upper (65+) age brackets had the lowest donor registration rates. CONCLUSION: Promotional efforts should continue to target younger and older audience segments with information about organ donation as well as African Americans. Results from the current study suggest emphasizing the benefits of organ donation as well as overcoming negative beliefs, decisional uncertainty, and perceived disqualifications.

An evaluation of a motor vehicle facility campaign with an established statewide donor registry: A test of sustainable, evidence-based intervention strategies.

Increasing organ donor registration enrollment inside motor vehicle facilities (MVF) is a common approach in the United States. From this research, a formula for what works has emerged within the literature including the presence of an interpersonal component, video messages, and point-of-decision materials. These intervention components have demonstrated effectiveness at increasing registrations in relatively new statewide registries; however, their effectiveness in MVFs with a mature registry remains understudied. The current study examined the effectiveness of an online MVF clerk intervention and the other examined the effectiveness of a multi-message, phase MVF intervention aimed at increasing organ donation registrations. The results revealed that MVF clerks garnered increased knowledge and greater comfort in communicating about organ donation with patrons after the intervention. Moreover, the intervention revealed that clerk talk effectiveness was positively associated with organ donation registration among MVF customers. Against expectations, recall of video messages was negatively associated with new registrations. Exposure to the brochure, counter mat, and poster donation messages was not associated with organ donation registration. An emphasis on the strengths and shortcomings of using MVFs as intervention sites for organ donation registration promotion are discussed.

An Application of the Reasoned Action Approach to Bystander Intervention for Sexual Assault.

The high prevalence of sexual assault in US college campuses has led to a widespread implementation of bystander intervention programs aimed at preventing sexual assault. The current study examines predictors of college students' intentions to engage in bystander intervention through the theoretical lens of the reasoned action approach. An online survey with college students (N = 186) was conducted at a large Midwestern university. Our results indicated experiential attitudes, instrumental attitudes, descriptive norms, autonomy, and capacity, each positively associated with participants' intentions to intervene to stop a sexual assault. Against expectations, injunctive norms were unrelated to bystander intervention intentions. Finally, in addition to these main effects, an experiential attitude by autonomy interaction was also observed. The results are discussed with a focus on the theoretical and practical implications of our findings.

An application of the theory of normative social behavior to bystander intervention for sexual assault.

Objective: Given the high prevalence of sexual assault on U.S. college campuses, the current study examines predictors of college students' intentions to intervene to prevent sexual assault through the lens of the theory of normative social behavior (TNSB). Participants: One hundred eighty-six undergraduate students age 18-25 were recruited from an introductory course at a large Midwestern university. Methods: Data were collected through an online survey during the 2015-2016 academic year. Results: Results indicated that descriptive norms, injunctive norms, and outcome expectations had direct positive effects on behavioral intention. However, no direct effect of group identity on intention was found. In addition to these main effects, an interaction between descriptive and injunctive norms was also observed. Conclusions: The results of the current study speak to theoretical questions surrounding the nature of TNSB variables, as well as several practical implications for coordinated efforts to promote bystander intervention on college campuses.

An evaluation of a college campus emergency preparedness intervention.

INTRODUCTION: Given the range of emergencies that beset postsecondary institutions, university administrators must take a multimodal approach to prepare campus stakeholders for safety threats. One such strategy is emergency preparedness communication. METHODS: In the present investigation, we tested the efficacy of a professionally produced video that uses the federally endorsed slogan, Run-Hide-Fight(r). Undergraduate students participated in a quasi-experiment with a pretest-posttest-delayed posttest control group design. RESULTS: Using the theory of planned behavior as our guiding framework, we found that video exposure increased attitudes, perceived norms, perceived behavioral control, intentions, as well as knowledge of recommended behavioral responses. Favorable attitudes and injunctive norms positively predicted intentions at the initial and delayed posttests. Importantly, the video's effects on most of the outcomes endured two weeks after video exposure. CONCLUSIONS: A brief emergency preparedness video using the Run-Hide-Fight(r) theme can have immediate and lingering effects on psychosocial predictors of appropriate emergency response behaviors. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: Administrators at higher education institutions should consider showing emergency preparedness messages to increase the likelihood that stakeholders will take appropriate action in case of a campus threat. In particular, these messages should aim to promote favorable attitudes toward appropriate response behaviors and instill beliefs that appropriate responses ought to be performed.

Examining Mechanisms Underlying Fear-Control in the Extended Parallel Process Model.

This investigation sought to advance the extended parallel process model in important ways by testing associations among the strengths of efficacy and threat appeals with fear as well as two outcomes of fear-control processing, psychological reactance and message minimization. Within the context of print ads admonishing against noise-induced hearing loss (NIHL) and the fictitious Trepidosis virus, partial support was found for the additive model with no support for the multiplicative model. High efficacy appeals mitigated freedom threat perceptions across both contexts. Fear was positively associated with both freedom threat perceptions within the NIHL context and favorable attitudes for both NIHL and Trepidosis virus contexts. In line with psychological reactance theory, a freedom threat was positively associated with psychological reactance. Reactance, in turn, was positively associated with message minimization. The models supported reactance preceding message minimization across both message contexts. Both the theoretical and practical implications are discussed with an emphasis on future research opportunities within the fear-appeal literature.

Using direct mail to promote organ donor registration: Two campaigns and a meta-analysis.

BACKGROUND: Two direct mail campaigns were undertaken in Rochester and Buffalo, New York, with the goal of enrolling adults aged 50-64 years into the state organ and tissue donation electronic registry. Meta-analytic methods were used to summarize the body of research on the effects of direct mail marketing to promote organ donation registration. METHODS: In the first study, 40 000 mailers were sent to targeted adults in Rochester, New York, and varied by brochure-only, letter-only, and letter plus brochure mailing conditions. A follow-up mailer using letter-only was sent to 20 000 individuals in Buffalo, New York area. In a second study, campaign results were combined with previously published direct mail campaigns in a random-effects meta-analysis. RESULTS: The overall registration rates were 1.6% and 4.6% for the Rochester and Buffalo campaigns, and the letter-only condition outperformed the brochure-only and letter plus brochure conditions in the Rochester area campaigns. Meta-analysis indicated a 3.3% registration rates across 15 campaigns and 329 137 targeted individuals. Registration rates were higher when targeting 18-year-olds and when direct mail letters were authored by officials affiliated with state departments. CONCLUSION: Use of direct mail to promote organ donor registration is an inexpensive method to increase enrollments in state registries.

Does Donor Status, Race, and Biological Sex Predict Organ Donor Registration Barriers?

PURPOSE: The purpose of the current study was to examine differences among bodily integrity, disgust, medical mistrust, and superstition among African Americans, Caucasians, and Latinos; females and males; and registered organ donors and non-registered potential donors. METHODS: A random digit dialing phone survey was utilized to garner information pertaining to organ donation beliefs among African American (n = 200), Caucasian (n = 200), and Latino (n = 200) Chicago residents. More specifically, participants responded to measures of bodily integrity, disgust, medical mistrust, and superstition, organ donor registration status, among others. RESULTS: The results indicated that African American and Latino participants were less likely to be registered organ donors than Caucasians (p < .001). In general, females maintained fewer barriers than males with respect to bodily integrity (p < .05), disgust (p = .01), and superstition (p = .01). With respect to organ donation barriers, bodily integrity (p < .0001) emerged as a central concern among those surveyed. CONCLUSION: This study highlights the significance of audience segmentation when promoting posthumous organ and tissue donation. Specifically, the results stress the importance of constructing distinct messages to non-registered potential donors compared to messages delivered to registered donors. Moreover, different barriers surfaced among females and males as well as among African American, Caucasian, and Latino residents. It is clear that a one size fits all approach will likely not work when promoting organ and tissue donation.