Mycobacterial lipopeptides elicit CD4+ CTLs in Mycobacterium tuberculosis-infected humans.

In searching for immunogenic molecules with the potential to induce protective immune responses against tuberculosis, we developed an ex vivo model to study frequency, phenotype, and effector functions of human T lymphocytes recognizing hydrophobic Ags of Mycobacterium tuberculosis (M.Tb). To obtain unbiased results, we characterized T lymphocytes responding to a crude cell wall extract (chloroform methanol extract of M.Tb (M.Tb-CME)) containing a broad spectrum of mycobacterial glycolipids and lipopeptides. A significant proportion of T lymphocytes recognized M.Tb-CME (290 IFN-gamma+ T cells/10(5) PBMCs) and developed to effector memory cells as determined by the expression of CD45RO and the chemokine receptors CXCR3 and CCR5. Expanded lymphocytes fulfilled all criteria required for an efficient immune response against tuberculosis: 1) release of macrophage-activating Th1 cytokines and chemokines required for the spatial organization of local immune responses, 2) cytolytic activity against Ag-pulsed macrophages, and 3) recognition of infected macrophages and killing of the intracellular bacteria. Phenotypically, M.Tb-CME-expanded cells were CD4+ and MHC class II restricted, challenging current concepts that cytotoxic and antimicrobial effector cells are restricted to the CD8+ T cell subset. Pretreatment of M.Tb-CME with protease or chemical delipidation abrogated the biological activity, suggesting that responses were directed toward mycobacterial lipopeptides. These findings suggest that lipidated peptides are presented by M.Tb-infected macrophages and elicit CD4+ cytolytic and antimicrobial T lymphocytes. Our data support an emerging concept to include hydrophobic microbial Ags in vaccines against tuberculosis.

The anti-inflammatory effect of low-dose radiation therapy involves a diminished CCL20 chemokine expression and granulocyte/endothelial cell adhesion.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Low-dose radiotherapy (LD-RT) is known to exert an anti-inflammatory effect, however, the underlying molecular mechanisms are not fully understood. The manipulation of polymorphonuclear neutrophil (PMN) function and/or recruitment may be one mechanism. Chemokines contribute to this process by creating a chemotactic gradient and by activating integrins. This study aimed to characterize the effect of LD-RT on CCL20 chemokine production and PMN/endothelial cell (EC) adhesion. MATERIAL AND METHODS: The EC line EA.hy.926 was irradiated with doses ranging from 0 to 3 Gy and was co-cultured with PMNs from healthy donors either by direct cell contact or separated by transwell membrane chambers. CXCL8, CCL18, CCL20 chemokine and tumor necrosis factor-(TNF-)alpha cytokine levels in supernatants were determined by ELISA and adhesion assays were performed. The functional impact of the cytokines transforming growth factor-(TGF-)beta(1) and TNF-alpha and of the intercellular adhesion molecule-(ICAM-)1 on CCL20 expression was analyzed by using neutralizing antibodies. RESULTS: As compared to CXCL8 and CCL18, CCL20 chemokine secretion was found to be exclusively induced by a direct cell-cell contact between PMNs and EA.hy.926 ECs in a TNF-alpha-dependent, but ICAM-1-independent manner. Furthermore, irradiation with doses between 0.5 and 1 Gy resulted in a significant reduction of CCL20 release which was dependent on TGF-beta(1) (p < 0.01). The decrease of CCL20 paralleled with a significant reduction in PMN/EA.hy.926 EC adhesion (p < 0.001). CONCLUSION: The modulation of CCL20 chemokine expression and PMN/EC adhesion adds a further facet to the plethora of mechanisms contributing to the anti-inflammatory efficacy of LD-RT.

Expression and regulation of CCL18 in synovial fluid neutrophils of patients with rheumatoid arthritis.

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is characterized by the recruitment of leukocytes and the accumulation of inflammatory mediators within the synovial compartment. Release of the chemokine CCL18 has been widely attributed to antigen-presenting cells, including macrophages and dendritic cells. This study investigates the production of CCL18 in polymorphonuclear neutrophils (PMN), the predominant cell type recruited into synovial fluid (SF). Microarray analysis, semiquantitative and quantitative reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction identified SF PMN from patients with RA as a novel source for CCL18 in diseased joints. Highly upregulated expression of other chemokine genes was observed for CCL3, CXCL8 and CXCL10, whereas CCL21 was downregulated. The chemokine receptor genes were differentially expressed, with upregulation of CXCR4, CCRL2 and CCR5 and downregulation of CXCR1 and CXCR2. In cell culture experiments, expression of CCL18 mRNA in blood PMN was induced by tumor necrosis factor alpha, whereas synthesis of CCL18 protein required additional stimulation with a combination of IL-10 and vitamin D3. In comparison, recruited SF PMN from patients with RA were sensitized for CCL18 production, because IL-10 alone was sufficient to induce CCL18 release. These results suggest a release of the T cell-attracting CCL18 by PMN when recruited to diseased joints. However, its production is tightly regulated at the levels of mRNA expression and protein synthesis.

Expression and antimicrobial function of bactericidal permeability-increasing protein in cystic fibrosis patients.

In cystic fibrosis (CF), the condition limiting the prognosis of affected children is the chronic obstructive lung disease accompanied by chronic and persistent infection with mostly mucoid strains of Pseudomonas aeruginosa. The majority of CF patients have antineutrophil cytoplasmic antibodies (ANCA) primarily directed against the bactericidal permeability-increasing protein (BPI) potentially interfering with antimicrobial effects of BPI. We analyzed the expression of BPI in the airways of patients with CF. In their sputum samples or bronchoalveolar lavage specimens, nearly all patients expressed BPI mRNA and protein, which were mainly products of neutrophil granulocytes as revealed by intracellular staining and subsequent flow cytometry. Repeated measurements revealed consistent individual BPI expression levels during several months quantitatively correlating with interleukin-8. In vitro, P. aeruginosa isolates from CF patients initiated the rapid release of BPI occurring independently of protein de novo syntheses. Furthermore, purified natural BPI as well as a 27-mer BPI-derived peptide displayed antimicrobial activity against even patient-derived mucoid P. aeruginosa strains and bacteria resistant against all antibiotics tested. Thus, BPI that is functionally active against mucoid P. aeruginosa strains is expressed in the airways of CF patients but may be hampered by autoantibodies, resulting in chronic infection.

Toll-like receptors: sentinels of host defence against bacterial infection.

Innate immunity provides a first line of host defence against infection through microbial recognition and killing while simultaneously activating a definitive adaptive immune response. Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are principal mediators of rapid microbial recognition and function mainly by detection of structural patterns that do not exist in the host. TLR2 and TLR4 were the first members of this innate immune receptor family to be strongly implicated in antibacterial host defence. Following the initial description of the mammalian TLR family, susceptibility to infection with numerous human microbial pathogens has been intensively studied using mice with engineered deletions of each of these molecules. While it has become quite clear that TLR activation is necessary for optimal host defence, a comprehensive understanding of the mechanisms by which this family of pattern recognition receptors engages protective immunity, particularly the adaptive response, is still evolving.

Endotoxin-induced expression of murine bactericidal permeability/increasing protein is mediated exclusively by toll/IL-1 receptor domain-containing adaptor inducing IFN-beta-dependent pathways.

Antimicrobial effector proteins are a key mechanism for the innate immune system to combat pathogens once they infect the host. We report the identification and cloning of the mouse homologue of human bactericidal permeability/increasing protein (BPI). Mouse BPI is constitutively expressed in lymphatic organs and tissues as well as in mouse testis. Upon stimulation with different TLR ligands, mouse BPI is strongly expressed in granulocytes and, surprisingly, in bone marrow-derived dendritic cells. Mouse BPI is most strongly induced by bacterial LPS through a signaling pathway that is completely dependent on TLR4-Toll/IL-1R domain-containing adaptor inducing IFN-beta. Functional studies revealed that mouse BPI does have the potential to neutralize LPS and inhibits bacterial growth. Mouse BPI is expressed in granulocytes and bone marrow-derived dendritic cells, and the transcriptional activation is controlled by TLRs.

Extravasation into synovial tissue induces CCL20 mRNA expression in polymorphonuclear neutrophils of patients with rheumatoid arthritis.

OBJECTIVE: Examination of expression of the chemokine macrophage inflammatory protein-3a (CCL20/Mip-3alpha) in blood polymorphonuclear neutrophils (PMN) and synovial fluid (SF) PMN of patients with rheumatoid arthritis (RA). METHODS: Paired samples of blood PMN and SF PMN were obtained from 11 patients with RA. In addition, SF was prepared from 9 patients with osteoarthritis (OA) and 10 patients with juvenile idiopathic arthritis (JIA). PMN were isolated via density centrifugation to a purity of 98%. Total RNA was isolated and the expression of CCL20 was determined by reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) and quantitative real-time PCR. In some experiments blood PMN obtained from healthy donors were stimulated with individual SF of patients with RA. For quantitative considerations, CXCL8, CCL20, interleukin 1, and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) levels were determined in SF by ELISA. RESULTS: In SF of RA patients CCL20 and CXCL8 levels were elevated, up to 7.5 ng/ml and 23.6 ng/ml, respectively. No significant level of either chemokine was found in SF of patients with JIA and OA. CCL20 mRNA was undetectable in blood PMN of all patients with RA. In SF PMN, CCL20 mRNA was found in 6/11 RA patients. Expression of CCL20 mRNA in 5/6 SF PMN samples was observed in the absence of detectable TNF-alpha levels in SF. Cell culture experiments, however, confirmed the ability of TNF-alpha in SF to induce CCL20 mRNA expression in blood PMN. Notably, expression of CCL20 was also found in PMN after stimulation with SF lacking TNF-alpha. CONCLUSION: Recruitment of PMN to the synovial microenvironment induces expression of CCL20 mRNA independent of the concentrations of TNF-alpha accumulating in SF of patients with RA.

A small molecule alpha 4 beta 1 antagonist prevents development of murine Lyme arthritis without affecting protective immunity.

After infection with Borrelia burgdorferi, humans and mice under certain conditions develop arthritis. Initiation of inflammation is dependent on the migration of innate immune cells to the site of infection, controlled by interactions of a variety of adhesion molecules. In this study, we used the newly synthesized compound S18407, which is a prodrug of the active drug S16197, to analyze the functional importance of alpha4beta1-dependent cell adhesion for the development of arthritis and for the antibacterial immune response. S16197 is shown to interfere specifically with the binding of alpha4beta(1 integrin to its ligands VCAM-1 and fibronectin in vitro. Treatment of B. burgdorferi-infected C3H/HeJ mice with the alpha4beta1 antagonist significantly ameliorated the outcome of clinical arthritis and the influx of neutrophilic granulocytes into ankle joints. Furthermore, local mRNA up-regulation of the proinflammatory mediators IL-1, IL-6, and cyclooxygenase-2 was largely abolished. Neither the synthesis of spirochete-specific Igs nor the development of a Th1-dominated immune response was altered by the treatment. Importantly, the drug also did not interfere with Ab-mediated control of spirochete load in the tissues. These findings demonstrate that the pathogenesis, but not the protective immune response, in Lyme arthritis is dependent on the alpha4beta1-mediated influx of inflammatory cells. The onset of inflammation can be successfully targeted by treatment with S18407.

Induction of SAP7 correlates with virulence in an intravenous infection model of candidiasis but not in a vaginal infection model in mice.

SAP7 of Candida albicans is induced after vaginal infection of mice. Conversely, virulence during vaginal infection was not affected in a Deltasap7/Deltasap7 mutant strain. Only a partial virulence phenotype was detectable after intravenous injection. In conclusion, SAP7 expression does not correlate with C. albicans virulence in mice.

Inverse correlation of maturity and antibacterial activity in human dendritic cells.

Dendritic cells (DCs) are a key part of host defense against microbial pathogens, being part of the innate immune system, but also instructing the adaptive T cell response. This study was designed to evaluate whether human DCs directly contribute to innate immunity by killing intracellular bacteria, using tuberculosis as a model. DCs were detected in bronchoalveolar lavage samples indicating that DCs are available for immediate interaction with Mycobacterium tuberculosis (M. Tb) after inhalation of the pathogen. The phenotype of DC in bronchoalveolar lavage closely resembles monocyte-derived immature DC (iDC) according to the expression of CD1a, CD83, and CCR7. The antimicrobial activity of iDC against intracellular M. Tb inversely correlated with TNF-alpha-release and was enhanced by treatment with anti-TNF-alpha Abs. Differentiation of iDC into mature DC by addition of TNF-alpha or activation via Toll-like receptors further reduced killing of M. Tb. The antibacterial activity against intracellular M. Tb of all DCs was significantly lower than alveolar macrophages. Therefore, the maintenance of a pool of DCs at the site of disease activity in tuberculosis, and the maturation of these DC by TNF-alpha provides a mechanism by which M. Tb escapes the innate immune system.

Regulation and signal transduction of toll-like receptors in human chorioncarcinoma cell lines.

PROBLEM: Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are expressed on placental cells. The aim of this study is to analyze signaling components activated in placenta cells after TLR ligand engagement. METHODS OF STUDY: In chorioncarcimoma cell lines the regulation of TLRs was determined by real time polymerase chain reaction as well as by fluorescence-activated cell sorter analysis. Activation of NF-kappaB was determined in a reporter assay system and the activation of the mitogen-activated protein kinase signaling pathways by immunoblot analysis. RESULTS: Both lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and DNA oligonucleotides containing unmethylated CpG motifs (CpG) induced the enhanced expression of TLR2 mRNA as well as a TLR2 surface protein expression. Functionally, incubation of JAR cells with microbial stimuli such as LPS activated NF-kappaB, as well as the phosphorylation of ERK1/2 and p38 MAP kinases and secretion of interleukin-8. CONCLUSION: The functional expression of TLRs on placental cells may play an important role in the initiation of an immune response in the developing fetus.

Profile of Candida albicans-secreted aspartic proteinase elicited during vaginal infection.

Vaginal infections caused by the opportunistic yeast Candida albicans are a significant problem in women of child-bearing age. Several factors are recognized as playing a crucial role in the pathogenesis of superficial candidiasis; these factors include hyphal formation, phenotypic switching, and the expression of virulence factors, including a 10-member family of secreted aspartic proteinases. In the present investigation, we analyzed the secreted aspartic proteinase gene (SAP) expression profile of C. albicans that is elicited in the course of vaginal infection in mice and how this in vivo expression profile is associated with hyphal formation. We utilized two different genetic reporter systems that allowed us to observe SAP expression on a single-cell basis, a recombination-based in vivo expression technology and green fluorescent protein-expressing Candida reporter strains. Of the six SAP genes that were analyzed (SAP1 to SAP6), only SAP4 and SAP5 were detectably induced during infection in this model. Expression of both of these genes was associated with hyphal growth, although not all hyphal cells detectably expressed SAP4 and SAP5. SAP5 expression was induced soon after infection, whereas SAP4 was expressed at later times and in fewer cells compared with SAP5. These findings point to a link between morphogenetic development and expression of virulence genes during Candida vaginitis in mice, where host signals induce both hyphal formation and expression of SAP4 and SAP5, but temporal gene expression patterns are ultimately controlled by other factors.

A synthetic, non-peptide CXCR2 antagonist blocks MIP-2-induced neutrophil migration in mice.

Non-peptide antagonists of chemokine receptors are considered an intriguing alternative for the treatment of acute and chronic diseases. Particularly the recruitment of neutrophils to inflammatory sites often causes harmful side effects and is mediated by chemokine ligands of the CXC chemokine receptor 2 (CXCR2). Hence, this receptor has been proposed as an important target for novel drugs. This study investigates the potential of the non-peptide CXCR2 antagonist SB 455821 to block neutrophil migration in mice. By using bone marrow derived neutrophils we established a migration assay which revealed SB 455821 as a potent inhibitor of macrophage inflammatory protein 2 (MIP-2)-induced neutrophil migration in vitro (IC50-20 nM). In vivo, injection of MIP-2 into the peritoneal cavities of mice markedly increased neutrophil numbers in peritoneal lavages which were reduced to control levels by co-administration of SB 455821 indicating that the compound effectively binds to the receptor under physiological conditions and exhibits biological activity in vivo. Nevertheless, using intraperitoneal injection of zymosan as a complex inflammatory stimulus, SB 455821 was unable to block neutrophil recruitment to the peritoneal cavity of mice possibly due to other chemotactic mediators overruling signals derived from CXCR2 ligands. Our data show that SB 455821 blocks MIP-2-induced neutrophil migration in vitro and after injection in mice suggesting that selective CXCR2 antagonists may be useful drugs in diseases where neutrophil accumulation plays a major role and leads to exacerbation of acute or chronic inflammations.

Constitutive expression of CXCL2/MIP-2 is restricted to a Gr-1high, CD11b+, CD62Lhigh subset of bone marrow derived granulocytes.

CXCL2/macrophage inflammatory protein (MIP)-2 is an inducible murine chemokine involved in attraction of polymorphonuclear granulocytes to sites of infection. In comparison, its role as constitutive produced chemokine in mice is unclear. The present study aimed to specify the cellular source of constitutively produced CXCL2/MIP-2 and to examine its expression pattern in comparison to other chemokines in peripheral lymphoid tissues as well as bone marrow (BM) of normal mice. The results showed that constitutive expression of CXCL2/MIP-2 mRNA was restricted to BM. As revealed by RT-PCR and FACS analysis, CXCL2/MIP-2 production was restricted to a specialized subset of BM derived Gr-1(high) granulocytes. This subset was characterized by surface expression of CD11b(+), CD62L(high) and CXCR2(+) and accounted for 4-6% of total BM cells. In vitro stimulation of BM cells did not increase the number of CXCL2/MIP-2(+) granulocytes. Intracellular CXCL2/MIP-2 was not strictly correlated to surface expression of its receptor, as the majority of the CXCR2(+)/Gr-1(high) cells lacked CXCL2/MIP-2 staining. In controls, CXCL1/KC expression was not detected in BM but was found in peripheral tissues in the absence of CXCL2/MIP-2. Together, our results show that CXCL2/MIP-2 and CXCL1/KC are differentially expressed in a tissue specific manner in normal mice and that CXCL2/MIP-2 is produced in a well-defined CD11b(+), CD62L(high), Gr-1(high) subset of BM granulocytes, thereby providing a possible explanation for the independent regulation of both chemokines.

Protection against progressive leishmaniasis by IFN-beta.

Type I IFNs (IFN-alphabeta) exert potent antiviral and immunoregulatory activities during viral infections, but their role in bacterial or protozoan infections is poorly understood. In this study, we demonstrate that the application of low, but not of high doses of IFN-beta protects 60 or 100% of BALB/c mice from progressive cutaneous and fatal visceral disease after infection with a high (10(6)) or low (10(4)) number of Leishmania major parasites, respectively. IFN-beta treatment of BALB/c mice restored the NK cell cytotoxic activity, increased the lymphocyte proliferation, and augmented the production of IFN-gamma and IL-12 in the draining lymph node. Low, but not high doses of IFN-beta caused enhanced tyrosine phosphorylation of STAT1 and STAT4, suppressed the levels of suppressor of cytokine signaling-1, and up-regulated the expression of inducible NO synthase in vivo. The IFN-beta-induced increase of IFN-gamma production was dependent on STAT4. Protection by IFN-beta strictly required the presence of inducible NO synthase. In the absence of STAT4 or IL-12, IFN-beta led to an amelioration of the cutaneous and visceral disease, but was unable to prevent its progression. These results identify IFN-beta as a novel cytokine with a strong, dose-dependent protective effect against progressive cutaneous leishmaniasis that results from IL-12- and STAT4-dependent as well as -independent events.

Control of Leishmania major in the absence of Tyk2 kinase.

IL-12 is indispensable for the control of many intracellular pathogens, but the components of the signaling pathway that are essential for its function in vivo are incompletely understood. Here, we investigated in the Leishmania major mouse model whether Tyk2 kinase is required for the generation of a protective immune response. Unlike C57BL/6 controls, Tyk2(-/-)mice developed severe skin lesions after infection that frequently ulcerated, but ultimately healed. NK cell cytotoxicity was absent in infected Tyk2(-/-) mice, even after IL-12 pretreatment, which correlated with a STAT4 activation defect. IFN-alpha / beta, which was still able to activate STAT1 in Tyk2(-/-) NK cells, reconstituted their cytotoxic activity, but not their IL-12 responsiveness. The IL-12-induced production of IFN-gamma by NK cells and CD8(+) T cells was strongly suppressed in Tyk2(-/-) mice at day 1 of infection, but partly regained during the late phase of infection. Tyk2(-/-) CD4(+) T cells developed into Th1 cells (although in a delayed fashion) and infected Tyk2(-/-) mice expressed normals levels of inducible NO synthase. Thus, Tyk2 is required for the IL-12 response of NK cells and CD8(+) T cells in L. major-infected mice, but not for the generation of Th1 cells and the ultimate control of the disease.

High diversity of ankA sequences of Anaplasma phagocytophilum among Ixodes ricinus ticks in Germany.

In Germany humans with acute granulocytic ehrlichiosis have not yet been described. Here, we characterized three different genes of Anaplasma phagocytophilum strains infecting German Ixodes ricinus ticks in order to test whether they differ from strains in other European countries and the United States. A total of 1,022 I. ricinus ticks were investigated for infection with A. phagocytophilum by nested PCR and sequence analysis. Forty-two (4.1%) ticks were infected. For all positive ticks, parts of the 16S rRNA and groESL genes were sequenced. The complete coding sequence of the ankA gene could be determined in 24 samples. The 16S rRNA and groESL gene sequences were as much as 100% identical to known sequences. Fifteen ankA sequences were >/=99.37% identical to sequences derived from humans with granulocytic ehrlichiosis in Europe and from a horse with granulocytic ehrlichiosis in Germany. Thus, German I. ricinus ticks most likely harbor A. phagocytophilum strains that can cause disease in humans. Nine additional sequences were clearly different from known ankA sequences. Because these newly described sequences have never been obtained from diseased humans or animals, their biological significance is currently unknown. Based on this unexpected sequence heterogeneity, we propose to use the ankA gene for further phylogenetic analyses of A. phagocytophilum and to investigate the biology and pathogenicity of strains that differ in the ankA gene.

High levels of susceptibility and T helper 2 response in MyD88-deficient mice infected with Leishmania major are interleukin-4 dependent.

Myeloid differentiation protein 88 (MyD88) is a general adaptor for the signaling cascade through receptors of the Toll/IL-1R family. When infected with Leishmania major parasites, MyD88-deficient mice displayed a dramatically enhanced parasite burden in their tissues similar to that found in susceptible BALB/c mice. In contrast, MyD88 knockout mice did not develop ulcerating lesions despite a lack of interleukin-12 (IL-12) production and a predominant T helper 2 cell response. Blockade of IL-4 produced early (day 1) after infection restored a protective T helper 1 response in MyD88 knockout mice.